|  | Feature: “Ethical Issues in Coaching” | No.58 January 2010 |
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Ethics in Sport Coaching Patrick Duffy |
The Ethical Responsibilities of the Sport Coach The role of the sport coach brings with it inherent ethical responsibilities. These responsibilities, demonstrated through the coach’s behaviour, have the primary objective of creating a safe, progressive and satisfying experience for sports participants. Ethical standards are essential to support and guide coaches in their practice and decision-making. In support of the coach’s primary responsibility, formal Codes of Ethics are central to the professional framework within which volunteer and paid coaches operate. Many countries and International Federations have developed specific codes that relate to coaching (for example, Australian Sports Commission (ASC), 2009; Canadian Professional Coaches Association (CPCA), 1993; Deutscher Sportbundes, 1997; International Tennis Federation (ITF), 2006). In other cases, the ethical responsibilities of coaches are embedded within wider codes of conduct (for example, Conseil De l’Europe, 2009; Finnish Sports Federation, 2009; Irish Sports Council/Sports Council for Northern Ireland, 2000; Norges id Rettsfrobund og Olympiske og Parallympiske Komite, 2009). The European White Paper on Sport (European Union (EU) Commission, 2007) has also highlighted the societal role of sport, placing an emphasis on social inclusion, integration and equal opportunities, as well as the fight against doping and the protection of minors. The White Paper also identifies the need to prevent and fight against racism and violence in sport. The International Council for Coach Education (ICCE) is the global body for the promotion of good practice in coaching and in the education of coaches. As part of its mission, ICCE (2009) has collated a series of documents relating to ethical behaviour in coaching. This work is increasingly connecting national lead agencies, international federations, coaches associations as well as Olympic Solidarity (OS) and the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). ICCE has published a draft strategy (ICCE, 2009a) that includes the development of a community of coaches globally and the creation of a platform for the establishment of coaching as a profession within the broader context of the sport and physical activity sector. Central to the creation of a profession in coaching is the development of principles and guidelines for ethical behaviour and practice, respecting at all times the autonomy and individual responsibility of the coach as well as sport, country and contextual differences. Bearing this in mind, ICCE has commenced pilot work on the creation of an online education module entitled ‘Making Ethical Decisions’. This module is being adapted from an existing course of the Coaching Association of Canada (CAC, 2007) for use within the ICCE-supported Global Coaches Social Network (GCSN). This work includes the identification of five core principles: physical safety and health of athletes; coaching responsibly; integrity in relationships; respect; and honouring sport. Before exploring these principles and the main ethical responsibilities of the coach, the core role of the coach will be outlined. An understanding of the nature and context of coaching roles is central to the creation of an ethical framework. Active, skilled and suitably qualified coaches will integrate ethical decisions and behaviour into all that they do on a day-to-day basis (sports coach UK, 2008). Role, Competence and Capabilities of the Sport Coach The European Coaching Council (ECC) (2007) has defined sport coaching as ‘a process of guided improvement in a specific sport and taking into account the need and stage of development of the athlete.’ This definition, augmented by a set of guiding principles, places a strong onus on the coach to support the participant in the achievement of progress in the context of goals that are appropriate to and agreed by the sport participant. Inherent in the ECC definition is the creation of a safe, progressive environment where the integrity of the participant is respected. The achievement of progress solely by ethical means is also an integral part of the definition. In order to guide improvement effectively, the coach will need knowledge and competence in a range of areas. The Review of the European 5-level structure for the qualification of coaches (ECC, 2007: Appendices 5 and 6) has defined the core job-related functions of the coach to include general skills; training; competition; management and education. Within each of these functions there are a number of tasks that include planning; organising; conducting and evaluating. ECC (2007) has also developed a series of learning outcomes that are linked to competences in knowledge, skills, personal, ethical and professional domains. This classification of competences draws on the work of the Aligning a European Higher Education Structure in Sport Science (AEHESIS) project (Petry et al, 2008) and is consistent with the emerging EU policy on Lifelong Learning and European Qualifications Framework (European Commission, 2008). The capabilities associated with coaching expertise are also the subject of analysis by a number of researchers. A recent article by Cote and Gilbert (2009) has identified the following areas of competence for the coach: Athlete outcomes: relating to the capabilities that can be developed in sports participants as a result of their sustained engagement in the sport. These outcomes have been classified in different ways. For example, the Irish National Coaching and Training Centre (2003) identified technical, tactical, physical, mental, personal and lifestyle capabilities. More recently, Cote and Gilbert (2009) have identified competence, confidence, connection and caring as key components while Haskins (in press) has added creativity to this classification in the case of children. It is also recognised that athlete outcomes will vary significantly according to individual need and stage of development. A number of models have been developed with a view to achieving a greater understanding of participant need at different stages of development and depending on where their motivation lies within the continuum between recreational, competitive and high performance sports participation (Balyi and Hamilton, 2004; Fraser-Thomas and Cote, 2008; National Coaching and Training Centre, 2003; sports coach UK, 2008; 2009). Further research on the definition of participant capabilities and the role of sport in their development at different stages is required. Professional knowledge: relating to the knowledge that the coach needs to perform their role (for example, knowledge of the sport and the underpinning principles of sports science relating to the sport). Inter-personal knowledge: relating to knowledge associated with the coaching process (for example coaching methods and pedagogy). Intra-personal knowledge: relating to the coaches self awareness and reflection. The appropriate enhancement of these capabilities is a key responsibility of the coach as part of their professional development, supported by their sport federation, further and higher education, national and other agencies as appropriate. Initial and continued professional development should take into account the age, stage and motives of the participants with whom the coach will work. Children’s sport, recreational sport and high performance sport present differing contexts and while there are common elements to the role of the coach, it is now widely acknowledged that these contexts also pose unique challenges that have implications for the role and capability of the coach (Gilbert and Trudel, 2004; Lyle, 2002). Following consultation with interested agencies within the EU, ECC (2007) has identified two main standard occupations in sport coaching: participation-oriented coach and performance-oriented coach. In each of these standard occupations, four roles have been identified: Apprentice Coach; Coach; Senior Coach and Master Coach. The competences required by coaches have been outlined with a view to providing a reference point for national agencies and international federations in the development of their coaching systems. The resultant revised European Framework for the Recognition of Coaching Competence and Qualifications (EFRCCQ) has received the support of ICCE and many of the leading coaching organisations in Europe through the formal adoption of the Rio Maior Convention (ECC, 2007a). The approach taken in this work has also been broadly supported in the literature (Cote et al, 2007; Cote and Gilbert, 2009; Lyle, 2002), although it is recognised that further work is required to refine these key building blocks in the emerging coaching profession (Duffy, 2009). Codes of Ethics for Coaches The responsibility for the education, employment and deployment of coaches varies significantly between sports and countries. In a growing number of cases, lead national agencies have taken the initiative to put in place central Codes of Ethics that are used as reference points for adaptation by the national sports federations (for example ASC; CAC). There does not yet exist a unified Code of Ethics for Coaches internationally, although a number of international federations have put in place such codes (for example, ITF). The ICCE pilot project on ‘Making Ethical Decisions’ is using the Canadian National Coaching Certification Programme (NCCP) Code and the associated course as a starting point. The objective is to produce an online course that can be adapted to different contexts as part of the GCSN initiative. The main elements of this code are outlined below. The five guiding principles in the NCCP Code of Ethics (CAC, 2003; 2007), which draws heavily on the Canadian Professional Coaches Association (CPCA) Coaching Code of Ethics, Principles and Ethical Standards (CPCA, 1993) are as follows: Physical Safety and Health of Athletes A primary responsibility of the coach is to ensure that the training and competition sites are safe and that appropriate emergency procedures are in place. Coaches should also avoid placing undue pressure on athletes or place them in situations that are beyond their level or which place them at unnecessary risk. The coach should make decisions taking into account the present and future well-being and health of the athlete. Coaching Responsibly The principle of coaching responsibly challenges coaches to coach in a way that will be of benefit to society and will not cause harm (CAC, 2003:13). In order to do this, the role, competence and capabilities of the coach (as outlined above) are key components. The NCCP Code (CAC, 2003:13) explicitly states that coaches should: Make wise use of the authority of the position and make decisions in the best interests of the athletes; Foster self esteem among the athletes; Avoid deriving personal advantage for a situation or decision; Know one’s limitations in terms of knowledge and skills when making decisions, giving instruction or taking action; Honour commitments, word given and agreed objectives; Maintain confidentiality and privacy of information and use it appropriately. Integrity in Relationships with others Coaches are advised to avoid situations where their objectivity and impartiality might be compromised. They are also advised to desist from any behaviour that would constitute harassment or inappropriate relations with an athlete. Honesty, sincerity and behaving in an honourable way are deemed by the NCCP Code to be the cornerstones of integrity. Self-awareness and critical reflection play a key role in helping to translate these values into action. For effective critical reflection, coaches need to be open-minded, engage in active enquiry and be sincere in their coaching relationships (CAC, 2003:14). The majority of coaches act with integrity when working with sports participants. However, verbal abuse is all too frequent in some coach-athlete relationships. Even more seriously, there have been many examples of child abuse by coaches in a number of sports and countries. This has prompted the publication of more specific codes relating to the protection of children from abuse within sport (for example, ITF, 2006; Irish Sports Council, 2000). Respect This principle challenges coaches to treat all sports participants with dignity and is based on the strong belief that each individual is worthy of respect. Value is placed on the individuality and uniqueness of each sport participant, irrespective of ‘gender, race, place of origin, athletic potential, colour, sexual orientation, religion, political beliefs, socio-economic status, socio-economic status, age, marital status or any other conditions’ (CAC, 2003:13). Inherent in this approach is an inclusive philosophy that is welcoming to both able-bodied and disabled athletes. Under this principle, coaches are expected to promote the rights of every individual participating in sport, through confidentiality; informed participation, shared decision-making and fair and reasonable treatment. Coaches have a particular responsibility to protect the rights of those who are vulnerable or dependent. Honouring Sport Coaches are challenged to honour and promote the value of sport for individuals and teams, as well as for broader society. This involves the adherence to and communication of clear values related to sport and coaching, as well as the demonstration and encouragement of actions and intentions that are honourable (CAC, 2003). Coaches are expected to adhere to a set of fair play principles as follows (CAC, 2003:15): Follow all of the rules, and never seek to deliberately break a rule; Aim to compete fairly, using talent and ability to win; refuse to win by illegal means or cheating; Respect the official(s), and accept their decisions without doubting their integrity; Recognise good performance by the opponent; Maintain dignity in all circumstances and demonstrate self control. In defeat, recognise with dignity the superiority of the opponent. In victory, act modestly, and do not ridicule the opponent; For all the officials - know the rules well, and apply them with impartiality at all times. A key issue in the promotion of fair play, is the fight against doping. Since the establishment of WADA, significant progress has been made in this regard. WADA has also turned its attention to educating coaches in anti-doping issues and this work has been carried out with the support of ICCE. A new online learning experience, entitled CoachTrue (WADA, in press) is in development and will provide the opportunity for coaches to enhance their knowledge and decision-making skills on anti-doping issues. The programme includes scenarios that will allow the coach to simulate discussions with athletes on the ethical and procedural issues associated with anti-doping. Accountability The coach is responsible for his/her behaviour. Core principles and codes should, in the first instance, provide the coach with the guidance that will help them to carry out their role in an ethical and fulfilling way. There is also a need for clear frameworks within which the coach can be held accountable for their actions. In this context, there are responsibilities, at differing levels, upon the agencies that employ or deploy coaches (for example clubs, schools, governing bodies, local, regional and national agencies). Within each sport, there is a responsibility for an ethical code to be developed and enforced. In Australia, ASC has developed a Coaches Code of Ethics that may be adapted by each sport and includes provision for formal signature by the coaches within the National Coach Accreditation Scheme (NCAS). ASC has also issued procedures for the de-registration of coaches. The CAC review of the Making Ethical Decisions course (Stirling et al, 2009) highlighted the need for a wider ethical initiative in the Canadian context and for measures to support the enforcement of codes of ethics, an issue that will be returned to in the next section. Further Steps The further development of a more ethical approach to coaching is proposed to evolve at a number of levels, recognising the core responsibility of the coach for their behaviour. At a broader, system level there is a need for the clear articulation of ethical principles that should guide the practice and decision-making of coaches. These principles should become embedded in formally developed and approved Codes of Ethics and Good Practice for coaching and which may form part of a wider framework for ethical practice in the field of sport and physical activity. An internationally recognised code would significantly enhance this process, providing guidance and a point of reference to national and international agencies that are involved in the education and deployment of coaches. Depending on the approach taken, it may then be necessary to formulate specific codes of conduct that make explicit the behaviours which are and are not acceptable in given coaching roles. Finally, provision needs to be made for enforcement so that coaches found to be in serious breach of the code will be held accountable for their actions. For example, the Canadian Ski Coaches Association has recently reported the expulsion of one of its members for the sexual exploitation of an athlete (Canadian Ski Coaches Federation, 2009). In addition to this overall approach to the creation of ethical frameworks within coaching, the roles and responsibilities of coaches and key agencies requires further development. Possible directions in this regard are outlined below. The Coach The education and development of coaches in line with a set of agreed ethical standards remains a key priority for future development. While there are country and sport specific differences in terms of these standards, there is an increasing need to establish a core set of principles and guidelines that span international and sport specific boundaries. The ethical responsibilities of the coach and the associated capabilities should be embedded in all core coaching qualifications at all levels and in all contexts. An initiative that is currently under consideration is the Coaches Charter, which outlines the rights and responsibilities of both coaches and employers in paid coaching contexts. Many of these rights and responsibilities will also have resonance for volunteer coaching contexts (Dick, 2009). They also form an important context for addressing the ethical responsibilities of the coach and his/her employers. It is also apparent that specific support should be provided to coaches to deal with the range of ethical decisions they face on a day-to-day basis. In a sample of 3,742 coaches, Stirling et al (2009:30) identified the dilemmas that had been faced by sport coaches (see table 1). The researchers also ascertained the extent to which coaches felt they had the knowledge to deal with each dilemma, as well as their status in relation to past and future educational requirements. The approach taken by CAC (2007) in the Making Ethical Decisions module, provides a framework for ethical decision-making, while the education of coaches in some countries is increasingly focusing on the identification and resolution of dilemmas (for example, Perez (2009) has highlighted the significance of this approach in the French context). Within the Canadian context, coaches have responded favourably to the introduction of a formal course, offered in classroom or home-study formats, to assist them in developing the skills to make better ethical decisions (Stirling et al, 2009). Notably, 73 per cent of coaches felt that the course had impacted on their ethical decision-making, while 60 per cent said that they had changed their behaviour following the course. Table 1: Summary of coaches’ responses on their exposure, training, knowledge and desired education on the specific ethical dilemmas (from Stirling et al, 2009) Stirling et al (2009:32) also provided a useful classification of the dilemmas faced by the coaches (see Figure 1). Figure 1: Categorisation of Ethical Dilemmas in Sport (from Stirling et al, 2009) The Sports Organisation Each sport organisation should develop a clear position on the ethical principles and standards applied within the sport. The position should also include provision for raising awareness, education and enforcement. Coaches have expressed the desire to access education in a range of formats, including as part of formal workshops, embedded into their certification programmes and online (Stirling et al, 2009). Notably, coaches are increasingly seeking greater access to such experiences online (22 per cent of coaches expressing this preference, compared to 10 per cent who currently access the online education in ethical issues). 95 per cent of coaches stated that education of ethical issues should be a formal part of coach certification (Stirling et al, 2009). In the same report, coaches recommended an enhanced approach to education (formal and informal), support (guidelines, social support), accountability (responsibility, enforcement, reward) and advocacy (bureaucratic, social, media) on ethical issues. Many of these issues, while relevant to each sport, have a common dimension that may often be addressed at a national agency level, with provision for sport and situation specific application. The Country Increasingly, the responsibility for an ethical approach to coaching is being taken up at the national level. Many of the issues raised above, relating to sports organisations, are also relevant for national organisations. Indeed, there would appear to be a strong responsibility on national agencies to ensure that Codes of Ethics for Coaches are in place and integrated within wider ethics initiative within sport. International Organisations, including ICCE The conduct of coaching within a broader sporting context has also received attention and this is likely to continue (Conseil De l’Europe, 2009; Finnish Sports Federation, 2009). The further evolution of more general codes to cater for specific guidelines in relation to, for example sexual harassment and sexual orientation, is also anticipated. The draft strategy of ICCE (2009) has stated the intention to create the foundation for coaching as a profession by 2015. A key component of the proposed new professional framework will be a Code of Ethics for Sport Coaching. In defining what a Code of Ethics is, US Legal Definitions (2009:1) states: A code of ethics is a set of principles of conduct within an organisation that guides decision making and behaviour. The purpose of the code is to provide members and other persons with guidelines for making ethical choices in the conduct of their work. Codes of ethics have been put in place in a number of established professions including teaching; medicine; law; accountancy. These codes provide useful reference points as ICCE seeks to develop a unified code that will achieve global acceptance. Central to this new code will be the statement of a set of clear ethical principles that will guide coach’s behaviour. As part of the evolution of coaching as a profession, its position within the wider field of the sport and physical activity sector will require further clarification. In this regard, ICCE is a member of the International Council for Sports Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE) and the positioning of any unified Code of Ethics in coaching relative to the codes in related strands of the overall sector will need to be considered. Hence, it is possible that a number of common principles might exist for the overall field of sport and physical activity, with domain specific codes in areas such as coaching; health and fitness; physical education; sport management; sport science and related areas. The further enhancement of ethical practice in coaching and the evolution of coaching as a profession are likely to benefit from a more coherent approach across the sport and physical activity sector. Such coherence and stability across the sector will provide greater confidence and support to practitioners. The objective should be to provide coaches (and other practitioners in sport and physical activity) with the space, capability, responsibility and support to apply their unique style and decision-making to guiding the improvement of the participants with whom they work in a high quality, ethical way. References Australian Sports Commission (2009). Coaches Code of Ethics. http://www.icce.ws/ethics/documents/Aus_Coaches_Code_Ethics_Agreement.doc Balyi, I. and Hamilton, A. (2004). Long-term athlete development: trainability in childhood and adolescence –windows of opportunity, optimal trainability, National Coaching Institute British Columbia, Victoria BC. Canadian Professional Coaches Association (1993). CPCA Coaching Code of Ethics. http://www.icce.ws/ethics/documents/CAN_Coaching_Code_of_Ethics.pdf. Canadian Ski Coaches Federation (2009). CSCF code of conduct violation. http:www.snowpro.com/cscf/e/eupdate/09-09/Auclair-en.html. Coaching Association of Canada (2003). 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Sport for kids. http://www.idrett.no/t2.aspx?p=22015. Perez, S. (2009). Dilemmas in coaching. Presentation to the Global Conference of the International Council for Coach Education, Vancouver. Petry, K., Froberg, K., Madella, A. and Tokarski, W. (eds) (2008). Higher Education in Sport in Europe. Maidenhead: Meyer & Meyer Sport. sports coach UK (2008). The UK Coaching Framework. Leeds. sports coach UK (2009). The Coaching Workforce 2009-2016. Leeds. Stirling,A., Kerr, G. and Cruz, L. (2009). An evaluation of the NCCP module making ethical decisions. Report submitted to the Coaching Association of Canada. World Anti-Doping Agency (in Press). Coach True –on-line education resource. Montreal. Contact Dr. Patrick Duffy Vice President (Europe) International Council for Coach Education London, UK Email: duffysutton@gmail.com http://www.icsspe.org/portal/index.php?w=1&z=5