|  | Feature: “Recreation Sport and Social Change in Sustainable Community Development” | No.55 January 2009 |
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An Overview on Community Development and Social Change through Sport and Recreation Anneliese Goslin & Darlene Kluka |
After the United Nations’ Economic and Social Council’s (UNESCO) session in 1961, a group of experts on community development submitted Resolution 830f(XXXII) and reported on (1) the relation of community development programs to national development including land reform, (2) ways of increasing the economic and social impact of such programs, and (3) effective organisational and administrative arrangements to carry out such intended community development initiatives. Lessons learnt from these experiences led to a progressive refinement concerning the role of the community, evolving from community participation to community empowerment to community action. This implied an integrated interdisciplinary approach involving experts and programs in the fields of education, health, social welfare as well as sport and recreation. Sport and recreation were included as a tool for community development or social change, based on its powerful potential as facilitator of social interaction, builder of community identity, cohesiveness, inter-cultural relationships and social re-engineering. Community development through sport and recreation refers to the use of sport and recreation as a tool for personal, national and international developmental goals. It also refers to how sport and recreation are used as a tool for addressing societal challenges. As sport becomes increasingly part of humanitarian and development work, as well as a part of the corporate social responsibility practices of some private sector actors, interested parties are anxious to explore the potential, as well as the limitations, of sport and recreation in their work. The focus of this overview is on clarifying the role of sport and recreation as a tool in holistic community development and sustained social change. Role Players and Key Milestones in Community Development through Sport and Recreation Partnerships are important in community development through sport and recreation initiatives. Partnerships are formed with role players on international and national levels and involvement in development through sport has been on the agendas of international role players for a considerable time. Primary role players at this level include the United Nations (UN), International Labour organisation (ILO) and UNESCO. The field of community development through sport, physical activity and recreation is a developing area. Below follows a chronological list of some of the key milestones that have occurred over the past few decades, putting sport as a tool for social development and change on the international agenda. 1978 – UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation) General Conference adopts the International Charter of Physical Education and Sport. 1997 – Heads of State and Government of the European Commission focus special attention on sport during the Amsterdam treaty negotiations, during which it was stated that "the Conference emphasises the social significance of sport, in particular its role in forging identity and bringing people together". 2001 – UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan appoints Mr. Adolf Ogi (former President of the Swiss Confederation) as the first Special Adviser on Sport for Development and Peace to enhance the network of relations between UN organisations and the sports sector. 2002 – The UN Secretary-General convenes the UN Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for Development and Peace to review activities that involve sport within the UN system. 2003 – First International Conference on Sport and Development held in Magglingen, Switzerland. The conference was the first international, high-level event on Sport and Development, involving participants from sports federations, governments, UN agencies, the media, athletes, business and civil society. 2003 – First Next Step conference: ‘International Expert Meeting on Development in and through Sport’ held in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. On a different level to the Magglingen conference series, the Next Step conference was established to target practitioners, mostly at the grassroots level, to share experiences and best practices in Sport and Development. 2004 – Roundtable Forum: Harnessing the Power of Sport for Development and Peace in Athens, Greece. The forum was hosted during the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens and brought together political leaders and experts in development to discuss the potential of sport in achieving development goals. The forum laid the cornerstones for establishing the Sport for Development and Peace International Working Group (SDPIWG), creating a new policy framework for the use of sport for development and peace. 2005 – International Year of Sport and Physical Education (IYSPE) 2005 is proclaimed by the General Assembly of the United Nations. 2005 – The Sport for Development and Peace International Working Group (SDPIWG) is formed, with representatives from Ministries of Sport, Youth and Development from 15 countries, directors of UN agencies and NGOs in the field of Sport for Development and Peace. 2005 – Second Magglingen Conference on Sport and Development in Magglingen, Switzerland. 2005 – Second Next Step conference in Livingstone, Zambia. 2007 – Third The Next Step conference in Windhoek, Namibia. July 2007 – European Commission publishes a White Paper on Sport, stating it will promote the use of sport as a tool for development in international development policy. January 2008 – International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the UN agree on an expanded framework for action to use sport to reach the goals of the UN. 2008 – UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon appoints Mr. Wilfried Lemke as the new Special Adviser on Sport for Development and Peace, after Mr. Adolf Ogi steps down. Community development and change through sport and recreation are not recent initiatives. Within the United Nations, humanitarian aid workers have tapped the potential of sport as a means to improve the conditions of victims of conflict and natural disasters for many years. The United Nations (UN) International Labour Organisation (ILO) and the International Olympic Committee signed an agreement to collaborate as far back as 1922. However, sport was largely underestimated as a major tool in humanitarian programs and was rarely used in a systematic way. The increasing importance of sport as a development tool in communities is illustrated by a statement from Kofi Annan, former UN Secretary-General at the Olympic Aid Roundtable Forum, Salt Lake City Olympic Games, 2002: "People in every nation love sport. Its values – fitness, fair play, teamwork, and the pursuit of excellence – are universal. At its best, it brings people together, no matter what their origin, background, religious beliefs or economic status. And when young people participate in sports or have access to physical education, they can build up their health and self-esteem, use their talents to the fullest, learn the ideals of teamwork and tolerance, and be drawn away from the dangers of drugs and crime. That is why the United Nations is turning more and more often to the world of sport for help in our work for peace and our efforts to achieve the Millennium Development Goals.” (www.sportanddev.org) More recently, there has been a fundamental shift with more and more national and international development organisations using sport to add to their approaches in local, regional and global development and peace promotion programs. This is done in close cooperation with national sports federations, the so-called Plus Sport Approach. Despite recent progress, the systematic use of sport, physical education and recreation for development is still in its early stages as many remain unconvinced of the impact these social phenomena can have on reaching development and humanitarian objectives (www.sportanddev.org). The Plus Sport Approach uses sport and recreation’s ability to bring together people to achieve societal outcomes (e.g. health, education). The focus is on non-sport outcomes and long-term positive social change. According to Coalter (2005) the main aim of community development through sport programs is social inclusion. Sport and recreation are used as a means to an end and are regarded as community needs-based, using sport and recreation to address and develop broader aspects of social inclusion as well as a means to impact on personal, social and community development. Development through sport and recreation programs aim to use sport to achieve social outcomes and change such as: Improving the fitness and health of specific social groups or of the total community; Addressing issues of community safety and reducing levels of vandalism and crime; Contributing to improved school attendance/educational performance; Developing social and technical skills and increasing employability; and Contributing to community development and regeneration. Best practices for community development and social change through sport and recreation Using sport and recreation in development of communities requires holistic planning. Coalter (2005) proposed the following best practices for community development through sport: Holistic planning of interventions Form partnershipsand agree on goals Formulate clear objectivesto support stated goals Available human resources should support and enable goal achievement Long-term commitment as behavioural change does not appear overnight or after one or two ad hoc interventions Innovation – adapt interventions to the needs of the community Empowerment and ownership – positive strategies should be implemented to hand over power, build community confidence, involve all interested participants and monitor progress Sustainability over a long term Delivery of interventions Management procedures have to be established at the outset of the program. Operational staff should deal with day-to-day issues (equipment, bookings, refreshments, maintenance) leaving management free to deal with strategic and developmental issues. Leadership in development through sport requires a mixture of skills including sporting ability, communication skills and empathy with the circumstances of the specific community. Positive rapport between the development leaders and the local community is a vital ingredient. A lack of trust can create cooperation problems. Deliberate efforts should be made to involve volunteers in the actual sport leadership and the general running of contact development of sport sessions. Training programs may be needed to build capacity within communities. Adequate and appropriate training programs for coaches and officials on all levels of the development of sport continuum must be accessible. Appropriate training skills for outreach and motivational work should also be accessible and provided. Continuing support will always be needed from professional sports leaders although the community may increasingly control and organise activities. Interventions and initiatives should focus on possible involvement on all levels of the sport continuum (ie Long Term Athlete Development (LTAD)). Facilities must be locally available and accessible on the first levels of LTAD. Facility partnerships may be formed on higher levels of LTAD. Equipment and transport can be a barrier if not properly planned and managed. Participants in interventions Strategies and actions to identify potential and interested participants must go beyond the normal range of participants and include, amongst others, persons with a disability. Socially excluded participants may be hard to reach and therefore much effort may be needed to reach this target group and sustain their interest. It is essential to understand the wide range of factors explaining why people do not take part in sport and thus not enjoy the benefits of community development. These factors will differ between communities but development leaders should not be discouraged. Understanding and implementing the following will be helpful: provide physical and sport opportunities at low cost Provide a wide variety of sport and physical activities Encourage beginners Provide opportunities at accessible facilities Provide appropriate equipment Run activities on a daily schedule Be reliable, present every scheduled session Use the same leader for each session to establish rapport Expect a slow start Be adaptable when numbers fluctuate Allow time for community contact and development work Review and monitor programs constantly Recognise that some participants will be more interested in having fun than attaining high levels of performance or medals Enable individuals to have a choice based on the recognition that different groups have different needs. Developing communities through sport requires providers to critically assess the relevance of traditional attitudes and approaches. Collaborative approaches and partnerships are needed to optimise intervention strategies. Focus areas and contributions of social change through sport and recreation According to the timeline of key milestones in social change and community development through sport and recreation presented above, sport as a tool for social development is widely recognised and implemented in holistic development plans in a spectrum of social areas: Sport and Education Sport and Peace Sport and Disaster Response Sport and Health Sport and Gender Sport and Economic Development In order for all interested parties to harness their resources, it becomes necessary to clarify each focus area. A. Sport and Education According to the International Working Group on Sport and Development (IWGSD), physical activity is vital to the holistic development of young people, fostering their physical, social and emotional health. The benefits of sport reach beyond the impact on physical well-being and the value of the educational benefits of sport should not be under-estimated. Within schools, physical education is an essential component of quality education. Not only do physical education programs promote physical activity, such programs also correlate to improved academic performance under certain conditions. Sport can also, under the right conditions, provide healthy alternatives to deviant behaviour such as drug abuse, violence and crime. A number of selected key themes related to these topics are further explored, including: The healthy development of children and youth through sport, recreation and physical activity Social and emotional development Practical considerations for sport, recreation and physical activity in education Healthy development of children and young people through sport, recreation and physical activity The educational impact of physical education and sport includes both the development of motor skills and performance as well as educational potential. This refers to the positive relationship between involvement in physical activities and psychosocial development. Sport and physical education is fundamental to the early development of children and youth and the skills learned during play, physical education and sport contribute to the holistic development of young people. Through participation in sport and physical education, young people learn about the importance of key values such as honesty, teamwork, fair play, respect for themselves and others and adherence to rules. It also provides a forum for young people to learn how to deal with competition and how to cope with both winning and losing. These learning aspects highlight the impact of physical education and sport on a child’s social and moral development in addition to physical skills and abilities. Social and emotional development In terms of physical and health aspects of child and youth development, there is an overwhelming amount of evidence that focuses on the (mostly positive) effects of sport and exercise on physical health, growth and development. Six effects deserve attention: Long term involvement in physical activity Physical education and sport build health activity habits that encourage life-long participation in physical activity. This extends the impact of physical education beyond the schoolyard and highlights the potential impact of physical education on public health. To achieve broader goals in education and development, sports programs must focus on the development of the individual and not only on the development of technical sports skills. This clearly supports the Long Term Athlete Development (LTAD) approach. Sport as a draw card to attend school Sport is an attractive activity for young people, and is often used as a drawcard to recruit children and young people to health and education programs. Sport and development projects that focus on educational outcomes use sport as a means to deliver educational messages to participants, and in some cases, spectators. Additionally, some programs aim to promote and develop other aspects of education such as school attendance and leadership. Sport does not inherently provide positive educational outcomes. Much of the literature emphasises the crucial role of physical education teachers and other providers of physical activity and sport as determinants of educational experiences. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), for example, are using sport and play programs to encourage young people, particularly girls and young women, to attend school within refugee camps across the world. In addition, UNICEF has a strong focus on using sport to campaign for girls’ education, promoting education through events and awareness campaigns. Examples of development and sport initiatives in educational settingsare: Mathare Youth Sports Association (Nairobi, Kenya) Go Sisters (Lusaka, Zambia) Youth Education Through Sport (Harare, Zimbabwe) Magic Bus (Mumbai, India) SCORE Moving the Goal Posts Kilifi programme (MTGK) in Kenya Learning performance in school Sport-based programs have been shown to improve the learning performance of children and young people, encouraging school attendance and a desire to succeed academically. Whilst a majority of research into the health and development impacts of sport has been conducted in developed countries, there are studies that support this relationship in developing countries. Social inclusion and community building The role of sport in inclusion has shown to be strongly linked to building social cohesion and social capital among young people and adults in communities. Sport has been used as a practical tool to engage young people in their communities through volunteering, resulting in higher levels of leadership, community engagement and altruism among young people. Positive peer relationships between young people are encouraged through physical activity and coaching is considered a key aspect of how physical activity can contribute to social inclusion among young people. Social inclusion also relates to offering equal opportunities to sport and education programs regardless of gender, ethnicity or ability. There is increasing attention on program development both in and out of schools for example, to include girls, people with disabilities and refugees. Character building Of all the literature on the social benefits of sport, the most intriguing is that which outlines sport’s positive impact on the moral development of children and young people. The reasoning is that moral behaviour is acquired through social interaction that occurs through sport and physical activity conducted in a collective. Whether or not sport has a positive impact on character-building in an individual is highly dependent on the context of the program and the values promoted and developed. In this respect, physical education teachers and other providers (such as coaches, trainers or community leaders) have a determining influence on a young person’s sporting experience and on the degree of character-building. Delinquency and community safety In general, research suggests that sport can be used as a means to reduce deviant behaviour among children and youth. The majority of programs that target delinquent youth aim to act as either: diversions for delinquent youth away from other delinquent youth or behaviours; rehabilitation activities for those previously involved in delinquent behaviour; or gateways to engage the target group in sport in order to establish relationships with authority figures, social services, educational programs and marginalised groups. ‘Gateway’ programs seek to address the underlying risk factors for crime involvement, early school leaving and other social problems that contribute towards delinquency by providing ‘at risk’ youth with access to social and job-skills training, education programs and/or leadership programs. To increase the success of sport and recreation programs in the above area, activities should be provided through supportive, ‘bottom-up’ approaches; the activity must be purposeful to the individual, tailored to their needs and de-emphasise regulations and winning. Participating in physical activity and sports skills does not directly impact on deviant behaviour and accordingly, programs should combine sports and physical activities with leadership and job-skills development and training to address risk factors in children and youth. Practical considerations on sport, recreation and physical activity in education Leadership Evidence shows that the real benefits of sport involvement derive from the positive aspects that are realised in children and youth who have experienced appropriate forms of leadership. Efforts should be concentrated towards leadership training, that is, the processes of training both professionals and volunteers who are likely to lead such programs. Coaches and physical educators have the potential to provide strong leadership if they fully activate this aspect of their work with children and young people. Positive social interaction between peers also links strongly with the sporting and educational outcomes and as such, peer educators and leaders also require quality training and support. Attitudes toward school There is growing interest in the relationship between sport and attitudes towards school among children and young people. A number of studies show a positive relationship between pupil attendance and the introduction of sports activities (i.e. there is an increase of children and young people in school where sports activities have been introduced). There is also evidence that among those at risk of being excluded from school, an increase in the availability of sports activities would make the prospect of attending school more appealing. In this sense, sports activities in schools act as a gateway (if presented in appropriate ways) to drawing children and young people towards attending school. On the other hand, research has shown that excessive and intensive training for competitive youth sport can act as an obstacle to fulfilling educational and academic pursuits among young athletes who compete in higher-level sports competitions. Cases in which adults (including sports coaches and even parents) push young athletes to abandon their studies to focus almost full-time on their sport pursuits are prevalent in competitive youth sports. The distinction between recreational and competitive youth sport and physical activity must be drawn to understand the extent to which sport acts as a magnet or a repellent to school. (http://iwg.sportanddev.org). Two documents provide valuable guidelines on appropriate guidelines on best practices in the education context: The Panathlon Charter on the Rights of the Child in Sport (www.sportua.be/panathlon) Human Rights in Sport Checklist (http://assets.sportanddev.org/downloads/hrinsportchecklist.pdf) B. Sport and Peace At the community level, sport can be used to create an environment in which people can come together to work towards the same goal, show respect for others and share resources and spaces. All these issues are crucial to peace-building processes. Examples from the Peace Players International Program illustrating the peace-building power of sport in torn communities are: Bridging Divides (Basketball, South Africa) Open Fun Football Schools (Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, Georgia, Middle-East Countries) One of the most difficult challenges faced by sport and peace-building initiatives is the re-integration of child soldiers into their communities. A recent UN study on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Children reports that government and armed groups around the world have recruited tens of thousands of children, most of them under 18 (many under age 10) in the past 30 years. The report states that children need the intellectual and emotional stimulation that is provided by structured group activities such as play, participating in sports, drawing and storytelling. Research has shown that sport may help children and young people who have been involved in armed conflict, by drawing them out of violent routines and offering them socially-acceptable and structured patterns of behaviour. Research on the reintegration of former child combatants in West Africa has shown that participation in sport helped to make a shift from a social context in which violence is ‘normalised’, towards one in which working together as a team is recognised and acknowledged in ‘peaceful and socially-accepted ways’. The re-introduction of former child combatants back into the community is a difficult process and is sometimes unsuccessful. Reintegration requires community-based rehabilitation projects, which enable former child soldiers to access education, address the trauma and psychological effects of being involved in armed conflict, and to create opportunities for an alternative to violent conflict. Re-integrating former child soldiers in Liberia is one of UNICEF’s successful projects to demobilise child soldiers through sport and life skill education (www.unicef.org/publications/index/html). The International platform for development and sport (http://sportanddev.org) suggests the following guidelines to be considered in the planning stages of sport programs aiming to use sport as an instrument for peace-building: Planning Sport programs that focus on peace-building must ensure that their efforts are part of a wider holistic approach to peace-building and conflict transformation. It is recommended that sport programs in conflict and post-conflict situations are implemented as part of comprehensive peace-building strategies. Sensitivity Sport is considered as a social construct i.e. socio-cultural norms and values dictate the ways in which sport and physical activity is viewed and is carried out in a community. Programs that use sport must take into account the ways in which sport and physical activity is constructed in a given conflict context and should be implemented in ways that are sensitive to this context. Accessibility All groups must have access to the sports program, which should aim to be as inclusive as possible. Efforts must be made to ensure that all groups have access to the infrastructure, including access to play spaces and equipment, and transportation to and from the play areas. Sports programs must be appropriately timed and scheduled to cater to the target group. Sports programs should be welcoming, accessible and social support made available for isolated groups. Local vs. externally-driven processes Experience warns against ‘parachuting’ workers, volunteers or even celebrities into conflict or post-conflict situations and advises that external actors involved in peace-building efforts are aware of their role in ‘insider-outsider’ power dynamics. Local community-based development approaches to peace-building through sport must be carried out in ways that allow the community to guide the process. In this sense, the ‘do no harm’ approach is crucial to any undertaking that uses sport in peace-building – sport programs are implemented in ways that enhance local peace-building efforts and do not operate in ways that undermine local resources and processes. Furthermore, the informed consent of participants and not just of their political representatives is essential to the success of a sports program that aims to contribute effectively to peace-building. Barriers to interaction Sport programs should ensure that the kind of interaction between participants encourages mutual acceptance and tolerance. Direct physical contact between participants has been cited as a tool to actively provoke the emergence of intensive relationships. Studies have shown that traditional games and dance were found to be effective in overcoming initial obstacles or barriers to interaction. C. Sport and Disaster Response Disasters affect many millions of people across the world and can occur on any continent at any time. Following man-made or natural disasters, relief efforts provide assistance to help affected communities to cope with the impact of disasters. Sport and physical activity play a valuable role in helping people affected by disasters, particularly in the early phases of relief. Sport and physical activity provide a unique outlet for psychosocial intervention and can help individuals and communities to overcome trauma (ICSSPE, 2007).Disasters are complex and multi-dimensional. Disasters can be described as: “a severe destruction that greatly exceeds the coping capacity of the affected community “ (ICSSPE, 2007). Disasters are classified according to their cause: Natural disasters (e.g. earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunami’s, floods) Man-made disasters (e.g. war, conflict, political instability) The fundamental difference between the two types of disasters seems to be that communities tend to come together after natural disasters and tend to be torn apart in man-made disasters. Disasters, both natural and man-made, have occurred for many centuries and continue to affect the lives of millions of people across the world. Humanitarian relief efforts provide assistance to rehabilitate and rebuild communities affected by disaster. To address emotional distress, disaster responders have traditionally used a clinical mental health approach, focusing on trauma recovery. Trauma occurs when a person is exposed to a life-threatening event and their response is most often one of intense horror, fear and/or helplessness (http://sportanddev.org). The impacts of disaster differ for men, women, children, people with disabilities, poor people and minority groups. Some of the possible impacts of disaster include: Morbidity and mortality Material losses Social disruption Psychological distress Sport and physical activity can provide a cooperative and supportive environment to build resiliency and social cohesion. In recent years, humanitarian organisations have begun to look more towards psychosocial interventions to address both emotional and social needs of people affected by disasters. A psychosocial intervention will aim to use community resources in order to rebuild the coping capacities of individuals affected by disasters, thus enhancing their inner strength, responsiveness and flexibility in the face of high levels of stress and traumatic events. In other words, this reinforces their resilience - an inner strength, responsiveness and flexibility that enable them to withstand stress and trauma. More and more projects are emerging that use sport and recreation as a psychosocial tool in disaster response. Sport interventions are being used in the field as a non-medical approach to build the coping capacities of people affected by disasters. Psychosocial sport projects are not about winning and losing but rather about the process of helping people to restore their social and psychological health. It is important to emphasise that the definition of sport used here goes beyond competitive sport but also includes notions of play and recreation. Sport and physical activity can be used during the immediate response phases as well as throughout all phases of post-disaster intervention. Sport and physical activity provide a safe, structured and friendly environment for people to begin to share their emotions through verbal and non-verbal communication. The emphasis is on building social cohesion and to encourage community members to interact and communicate with each other – sport and physical activity can provide the environment for that. Sport and physical activity should always be part of a wider disaster response framework, including e.g. nutrition, health and sanitation provision; education provision; generating economic opportunities (ICSSPE, 2007). Sport programs have a positive contribution to make only under certain conditions. There is a common assumption that sport and physical activity is internally good and will always have positive effects. Sport is, however, filled with meaning, values and ideas by the culture in which it takes place and the individuals who take part. This has significant implications for the use of sport programs in disaster contexts: The usefulness of sport depends entirely upon the manner in which sport is employed; The understanding of sport by post-disaster organisations may differ from the meaning sport has for the communities to which it is provided; Any characteristics that are developed through sport are the result of interaction with coaches, leaders, teammates, parents, friends and organisations and can have positive or negative influences; Sport has the potential to develop antagonism or affection, the choice often depends upon the nature of the competition and the care with which programs are designed and implemented. ICSSPE, 2007). Practical requirements for implementing sport and physical activity in post-disaster interventions To be able to effectively implement psychosocial sport programs in the post-disaster setting, practitioners require knowledge and training in both sport and psychosocial intervention.This is to ensure that high quality sport is delivered and that coaches are able to appropriately recognise and respond to signs and symptoms of trauma and to respond in an effective way. Engaging coaches from local communities is ideal as they possess greater knowledge of their community, language, culture and traditions. They also usually live in the local area and thus can be available outside of program sessions if children or families want to consult with them. It is important to consider that coaches from the local community are likely to have been affected by the disaster themselves and may need additional support, which the organisation should provide. Although these coaches may come from the local community, they should be selected based on their understanding of the dynamics within the community in terms of ethnic groups, gender, norms and social status. Being a coach in a psychosocial sport program requires the skill, desire and interest in teaching sports and games, but also the ability to understand emotions, behaviours and facilitate interpersonal communication. Through in-depth training programs, coaches can be better prepared to recognise traumatic reactions in the program beneficiaries as well as in themselves, to offer quality interventions and be able (if necessary) to refer such participants to mental health structures. This means that ongoing training and support for coaches of psychosocial programs is essential. With training, coaches can be better prepared to recognise the symptoms of more serious responses to trauma and refer such participants to a mental health professional. Ongoing training and support for coaches of psychosocial programs is essential. A number of training resources have been developed that cater for coaches, animators and facilitators of psychosocial sport programs. Many include practical suggestions, game ideas and recreational activities along with advice for best practices. One such training resource is Moving Forward: A Toolkit for Disaster Responders. Mercy Corps, CARE and Nike are working together to develop a new toolkit called Moving Forward to assist practitioners in applying sport-based approaches in post-emergency situations. The toolkit was recently field tested in Peru with a second pilot project planned for Afghanistan in the summer of 2008. For additional information as this initiative develops, visit www.mercycorps.org/. In order to achieve maximum effectiveness in a post-disaster setting, sport and physical activity programs must meet the following criteria: Deliver well-structured and planned interventions based on identified psychosocial goals; Aim to meet specific needs of all community groups; Actively recruit the minority groups in the community (e.g. women, children, the poor, elderly, disabled); Develop programs in collaboration with local organisations and agencies; and Offer long-term sustainability. Current sport initiatives in the post-disaster context here are a number of disaster response interventions that use sport as a psychosocial tool to help survivors of such events to overcome trauma and strengthen resiliency. These initiatives are classified under: Research and Evaluation in the Field Sport in Post-Disaster Intervention Seminars Research and Evaluation in the Field The Swiss Academy for Development (SAD) has a number of ongoing projects and continues to develop the body of evidence for sport in disaster response through program evaluation and research. The project, “Sport and Play for Traumatised Children and Youth in Iran” began after the earthquake in Bam, Iran, in 2003 and continues to use a variety of sport activities and games to build resilience in children and young people in Bam. Research data has been gathered during this project with a focus on sport’s impact on children’s behaviour, the role of sports coaches in a disaster setting and gender equity. In Sri Lanka, SAD is conducting a project called “Sport and Games for Social and Ethnic Integration in Sri Lanka”, in partnership with Sarvodaya, a local NGO. The project involves 700 – 800 children and youth across eight sites in Sri Lanka and is designed to: promote dialogue and trust; introduce psychosocial skills through sport and play activities; reintroduce structured leisure time; and to collect and analyse monitoring and evaluation data. Sport in Post-Disaster Intervention Seminars The International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE) has developed a number of initiatives related to sport and disaster response. Following the tsunami in December, 2004, ICSSPE hosted a seminar in Bangkok, Thailand, on Rehabilitation through Adapted Physical Activity and Sport. This was followed closely by a second seminar in Berlin, Germany in 2006. As interest in this area grew, ICSSPE developed a week-long training seminar on Sport in Post-Disaster Intervention in partnership with the German Red Cross and Kennesaw State University. Seventy-eight professionals from more than twenty countries attended the first international seminar in Rheinsberg, Germany in 2007. In association with the seminar, participants received a Handbook on Sport and Physical Activity in Post-Disaster Intervention, which detailed key theoretical and practical information to enable participants to plan and deliver a sport program in the post-disaster setting. The Moving Forward initiative, a collaborative endeavor between Mercy Corps, NIKE and CARE aims to help youth emerge from the physical and emotional rubble of emergencies by stepping onto soccer pitches, volleyball courts and dance halls of their recovering communities. The approach capitalises on the capacity of coaches and teachers to use sport- and game-based methodologies to help youth recover from the trauma they experience during and after disasters. As part of a pilot project initiated by Mercy Corps in response to the coastal earthquake in Peru in August, 2008, two dozen coaches and teachers were trained as mentors to work with kids in the most affected areas. Using sports like soccer, volleyball and dance, these mentors helped more than 300 kids cope with the psychosocial stress that follows losing homes and schools and living in crowded shelters. Twice a week, youth joined their mentors in community play areas to take part in soccer and volleyball matches and dance instruction to build their self-esteem, trust in others, teamwork and resiliency. Each mentor is equipped with a NIKE-outfitted sport bag containing all the tools of the sport-mentor trade: soccer balls, volleyballs, practice vests, cones, rope and other basic equipment. The experience and tools developed will help the Moving Forward initiative develop a one-of-a-kind toolkit to help child-service professionals engage youth in sports and games after natural and manmade disasters strike. D. Sport and Health According to the International Platform on Sport and Development, during recent decades, there has been a progressive decline in the level of physical activity in people's daily lives in developed countries. For a majority of people, little physical effort is involved any more in their work, domestic chores, transportation and leisure. Whilst specific health risks differ between countries and regions, the fact remains that physical inactivity is a major risk factor for most common non-communicable diseases and physical activity can counteract many of the ill effects of inactivity. The World Health Organisation(WHO) estimates that, with the exception of sub-Saharan Africa, chronic diseases are now the leading causes of death in the world. The WHO cites four non-communicable diseases that make the largest contribution to mortality in low- and middle-income countries, namely: cardiovascular disease, cancer, chronic respiratory disease and diabetes. One of the most widely-used definitions of health is that of the World Health Organisation (WHO), which defines health as: “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. This definition goes well beyond a condition of physical health but includes mental health and general well-being. (www.sportanddev.org). Sport and physical activity has long been used as a tool to improve mental, physical and social well-being. Sport and recreation projects that specifically focus on health outcomes generally emphasise: The promotion of healthy lifestyle choices among children and young people as well as adults to combat inactivity; The use of sport as a tool to raise awareness on communicable diseases in developing countries, for example, through district or national health campaigns supported by athletes and sports competitions; The use of sport as a didactical tool to communicate vital health-related information to ‘at risk’ groups; The use of sport to mobilise hard-to-reach groups as part of large-scale health campaigns, including for example, communities with low population density; Sport is considered to contribute to achieving mental health objectives, including addressing depression and stress-related disorders. Although research interest on physical activity and health dates back to the 1950s, the breakthrough in the scientific evidence on health benefits of physical activity largely took place during the 1980s and 1990s. There is an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence on the positive effects of sport and physical activity as part of a healthy lifestyle. The positive, direct effects of engaging in regular physical activity are particularly apparent in the prevention of several chronic diseases, including: cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer, hypertension, obesity, depression and osteoporosis. The Report from the United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for Development and Peace states that young people can benefit from physical activity as it contributes to developing healthy bones, efficient heart and lung function as well as improved motor skills and cognitive function. Physical activity can help to prevent hip fractures among women and reduce the effects of osteoporosis. Remaining physically active can enhance functional capacity among older people, and can help to maintain quality of life and independence. A number of factors influence the way in which sport and physical activity impacts on health in different populations. Sport and physical activity in itself may not directly lead to benefits but, in combination with other factors, can promote healthy lifestyles. There is evidence to suggest that changes in the environment can have a significant impact on opportunities for participation and in addition, the conditions under which the activity is taking place can heavily impact on health outcomes. Elements that may be determinants on health include nutrition, intensity and type of physical activity, appropriate footwear and clothing, climate, injury, stress levels and sleep patterns. < Sport and physical activity can make a substantial contribution to the well-being of people in developing countries. Exercise, physical activity and sport have long been used in the treatment and rehabilitation of communicable and non-communicable diseases. Physical activity for individuals is a strong means for the prevention of diseases and for nations is a cost-effective method to improve public health across populations. Sport and HIV/AIDS The World Bank states that communicable diseases are the largest causes of child deaths in the world and are significant causes of preventable deaths among adults in the developing world. Together, they claim more than an estimated 15 million lives a year, with over 80% of these deaths occurring in developing countries. Sport and physical education have shown that they can play an effective role in the fight against HIV/AIDS by providing a popular site for preventative education. There is also evidence indicating that involvement in sport may help to slow down the disease in individuals who are HIV positive. In Africa, there is an overwhelming majority of sport programs addressing health concerns with a particular focus on HIV/AIDS. Most of the sport-for-HIV prevention programs centre their activities on sharing information and using sport and games to raise awareness about HIV/AIDS prevention measures to minimise the risk of contracting the virus. None of the sport-based programs provide direct treatment such as ARVs (anti-retroviral treatment) for HIV positive individuals as part of their activities but rather focus on using sport as a method of mobilising youth, women and at-risk target groups for health promotion, prevention and education. HIV/AIDS is usually considered a taboo subject and the creation of safe and informal spaces to discuss HIV/AIDS through sport and games allows young people to learn about steps they can take to protect themselves from this deadly disease and to avoid risk-taking behaviour. A study conducted by MercyCorps (www.mercycorps.org) on two of their programs in Liberia and south Sudan has shown that HIV/AIDS knowledge and protective attitude levels of the participants were higher after being involved in their programs. In Africa a number of initiatives using sport against HIV/AIDS exist: Go Sisters Fifty-nine percent of HIV positive individuals in sub-Saharan Africa are women. A number of actors have attempted to address the impact of this gender bias in HIV/AIDS affected groups through sport. For example, the Go Sisters project in Zambia seeks to provide sports opportunities to girls and young women and to provide factual information pertaining to sexual and reproductive health. The health elements of the Go Sisters‘message’ goes hand-in-hand with the promotion of young women as peer leaders and coaches for other girls and young women. EduSport Foundation The use of sport in addressing HIV/AIDS does not only focus on the epidemiological aspects but the social impact of the disease on individuals and communities as well. The EduSport Foundation was created from the ‘bottom-up’ by individuals directly affected by HIV/AIDS, who not only prioritise providing young people in affected communities with life-saving information on preventative and protective measures but also actively promote the social integration of HIV positive individuals into the community through sport and physical activity. Kicking AIDS Out Kicking AIDS Out offers an innovative, inclusive, high-energy approach that links sports, physical activity and traditional movement games with HIV/AIDS prevention and education. Kicking AIDS Out begun as an Africaninitiative aimed at children and youth. It has developed into an evolving international network of ‘southern’ and ‘northern’ partner- and member organisations and associates. Trained youth leaders who can engage their peers in sports, provide accurate health-related information and skillfully create safe spaces for discussion on many sensitive issues. These are essential factors in the initiative’s success. (www.kickingaidsout.net) Practical consideration for sport programmes and HIV/AIDS prevention There are a number of considerations for sport and physical activity programming that targets HIV/AIDS prevention across various settings: Active learning models Participatory game-based learning methods are increasingly being recognised as particularly useful in transmitting HIV/AIDS prevention messages and encouraging changes in attitudes towards HIV/AIDS and sexual health. In sports programs, this approach towards HIV prevention has been favoured over ‘classroom-style’ teaching such as in school settings and workshop-based methods. Overcoming barriers to delivering sensitive information Active learning methods have proved useful in approaching the sensitive topics of HIV/AIDS and sex in ways that allow both mentors and young people to feel more at ease. Interactive games allow participants to address the subject of HIV/AIDS in an indirect way, with learning taking place in a more relaxed atmosphere. Building capacity among youth leaders The role of trusted adults in mentoring youth in order to develop youth peer leaders and youth mentors for younger children is increasingly being recognised as an important strategy in HIV prevention. Positive social networks (such as sports teams and after-school clubs) can be used as sites to identify, train and support mentors who can provide support to youth on how to mitigate social pressures that negatively influence behaviour. Collaboration with health services and specialists When present, existing HIV prevention services must work alongside sport programs. The strengths in sport programs lie in the delivery of information through facilitated means and the role of mentors in providing psychosocial support to young people at risk. In addition, HIV prevention services such as Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT), Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI) treatment and condom provision are crucial to maintaining the effectiveness of HIV prevention. Sport and other communicable diseases A number of sports programs target other communicable diseases. Programs in countries affected by malaria and tuberculosis, for instance, have also used sport to raise awareness about prevention of these diseases. The Right to Play project called Thailand Migrant SportWorks focuses on using sport as a didactical tool to teach children about infectious disease prevention. Experience shows that programs, which aim to show how infection spreads, along with its causes and symptoms, are also effective when physical activities and games are used to communicate these ideas. Partnerships between national health agencies and sport-focused organisations have attempted to provide children and young people with ‘active learning’ models in which to better retain and then discuss abstract health concepts. (www.sportanddev.org) E. Sport and Gender Promoting gender equity through sport can be achieved through the following actions: (www.sportanddev.org) Claiming space The provision of designated spaces for women’s and girls’ sport activities can have practical benefits but also a symbolic character, especially if these areas are public. In general, access to community areas is primarily granted to men and boys. In some cases, should women and girls frequent these community spaces, they are usually allowed to do so under specific conditions (e.g. while being accompanied by a male family member). Experience shows that by women and girls claiming public space, the community may become slowly accustomed to seeing women and girls sharing public space with men and boys. Access to resources, structures and leadership Besides infrastructure, sports programs for women and girls have shown to require organisational structure as well. Sports programs that assure women and girls active board membership in leading positions, equity, financial means, participation in decision-making and strategic planning are likely to be more successful in producing lasting change in the self-perception and self-confidence of female participants in such programs. Choice of sport Successful sport programs for women and girls have shown to have paid careful attention to categories of sports, such as: sport vs. games; contact vs. low-contact vs. non-contact sports; mixed vs. single-sex sports activities; team vs.double vs. single sports. Careful consideration of these aspects can help to establish female sports participation and its integration into everyday life. Research conducted on perceptions of sport in, for example, the US, has shown that basketball is seen as a ‘rough’ sport, while similar research in Senegal shows that basketball is considered a ‘feminine’ sport, indicating that an understanding of the community’s perception of different sports is required. Traditional games and competition Traditional games have shown to be useful in promoting gender equity, an approach that does not focus heavily on mainstream sport. This can help to avoid potential issues with promoting competitive sports but some indigenous games and activities derive from male-dominated hunting or war practices and therefore might be counterproductive in reaching gender equity objectives, reinforcing existing patriarchal structures and gender norms. As such, experience shows that modifying existing games, changing certain rules and focusing on participation and fun rather than on competition and performance, is more effective in achieving an inclusive approach to promoting gender equity. Didactical considerations In many cases, sport activities have shown to act as an ideal platform on which to address gender roles among children and adults. This is largely due to the ways in which sports activities are taught. For example, a significant learning experience can derive from witnessing a female referee at a sports tournament or training with a female coach. The role of females in such positions has shown to relay an implicit message that women do possess knowledge and leadership skills, and are also capable and familiar with a male-dominated field. Research on such programs has shown that male participants and stakeholders tend to experience an ‘eye-opening effect’ when witnessing and learning from female experts in sport. Providing incentives Sports programs in developing countries are usually run by sport coaches who work on a voluntary basis but sports projects have shown to require specialised and trained staff in order to reach the desired outcomes. As such, in order to get capable people to become actively involved in girls’ and women’s sport, research shows that added incentives must be provided (such as: remuneration, transferable skills, equipment, further education, media exposure, travel opportunities or other resources) to make the program sustainable. Holistic approach Sports programs that have proven most effective thus far in promoting gender equity are those that are well-integrated into the community and context in which the program takes place. Experience has shown that activities implemented with resistance from the community are less likely to continue once the program comes to an end. The programs that have used available input, knowledge and resources from the community tend to be more effective in maintaining longer-term impact of the initiative. F. Sport and Economic Development Sport is generally accepted as having the potential to contribute to economic development in a country. There are, however, three issues that deserve attention in the context of sport and economic development: Exploitation and child protection in sport Developing local markets through sport by means of hosting local events and producing low-cost and affordable sporting goods Building skills for employment through sport Exploitation and child protection in sport Excessive sports practice and pressure associated with performance sport are considered a violation of children’s rights. Some sports are considered among the ‘worst forms of child labour’ (such as camel-jockeying) due to the dangerous nature of the sport itself. Child labour in sport gained particular attention in the 1990s, particularly when extensive media coverage reported that sporting goods manufacturers were using underage children in various countries, who were paid far less than the minimum wage to manufacture footballs, garments and so on. The news was particularly harmful to the sporting goods industry due to the horrific claims that these children were making items that they themselves would never have the chance to use. Evidence therefore shows that children run the risk of being exploited not only in the sport they might be involved in but also by working in the divisions of the sports industry that remain largely unregulated. The use of child labour in the sporting goods industry has been a concern among trans-national subsidiaries abroad and more often in local subcontractor plants and manufacturing outlets. A taskforce on manufacturing processes concluded an assessment of the extent and scope of child labour in the soccer ball industry. A meeting with the ILO and lasting negotiations with producers (subcontractors) in Pakistan developed an industry-wide program to eliminate all forms of child labour in soccer ball manufacturing (www.old.itcilo.org). The Beijing Olympic Games in 2008 also produced a campaign statement on the use of child labour in their Clean Clothes Campaign (www.playfair2008.org). Developing local markets through sport by means of hosting local events and producing low-cost and affordable sporting goods Local sports events Local sports events show that they have the capacity to attract large numbers of people, initially from the local and surrounding areas where sports events take place and progressively, from further away. Local industries and a local sports sector may emerge should the events generate enough interest as to attract people willing to attend the event and purchase products and services associated with the event. At the local level, a ‘virtuous cycle’ can be created, in which sports-related services are provided, creating jobs and opportunities to upgrade skills and produce further services and products – a positive ‘spill-over’ effect from local sports events. Manufacturing Local Sporting Goods Despite the presence of local raw materials and manpower, sports equipment, particularly footballs, are not manufactured on a large scale in Africa. The sports balls that are currently available are imported from abroad, are synthetic and non-repairable. These sports balls are unsuited to tough playing conditions and are also too expensive for most consumers in Africa. The organisation Alive & Kicking has developed a unique model for African manufacture of affordable, durable and repairable leather sports balls. The crucial aspects that make the business model function are access to essential raw materials and labour. The manufacture of locally-produced sports balls has placed Alive & Kicking at a competitive edge in meeting consumer demands for affordable and durable sports balls. Alive & Kicking balls are produced in stitching centres that employ roughly 20 workers, who are provided with skills training and employment opportunities. Under the Alive & Kicking model, each stitching centre is designed to be self-financing after a year of production. Building skills for employment through sport It has been suggested that being involved in sport can equip young people with specific ‘core’ and ‘soft’ skills that may raise their level of employability. ‘Core’ skills include those that are directly associated with coaching and sport management. ‘Soft’ skills include the skills and values that are learned through sport, such as: cooperation, leadership, respect for others, knowing how to win and lose and knowing how to manage competition. However, it is advised to exercise caution when taking this view of sport’s contribution to economic development through job skills development because employment opportunities must exist for these skills to be relevant and of practical use. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has highlighted the position of sports institutions as lying outside the tripartite structure of actors with whom the ILO usually works (governments, employers and workers) and therefore calls for the creation and development of joint projects and partnerships. For skills-building in sport for employment, the ILO has suggested that classifications of sport and sport-related economic activities opportunities be carried out in African countries, considering that so few of them have been documented in this region. This would allow for a better understanding of the present situation of the sport sector and to uncover any potential employment opportunities and skills that young people may find useful in the sport sector in Africa. References Clean Clothes Campaign (2008). www.playfair2008.org Coalter, F. (2002). Sport and Community Development: A Manual. Report 86, Sportscotland. International Labour Organisation (ILO). (2008) www.ilo.org International Platform on Sport and Development. (2008) www.sportanddev.org International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education. (2007) Sport and Physical Activity in Post-Disaster Intervention. ICSSPE: Berlin MercyCorps (2008) Commitment to Practice: A Playbook for practitioners in HIV, Youth and Sport. Contact Darlene A. Kluka, Ph. D., D Phil Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences Barry University, Miami Shores Florida, USA Extraordinary Professor, University of Pretoria, South Africa dkluka@mail.barry.edu Anneliese Goslin, D Phil, MBA Department of Biokinetics, Sport and Leisure Sciences University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Visiting Professor, Barry University, Miami Shores, Florida – USA goslin@sport.up.ac.za http://www.icsspe.org/portal/index.php?w=1&z=5 An Overview on Community Development and Social Change through Sport and Recreation Anneliese Goslin & Darlene Kluka