|  | Feature: “Women, Sport and Social Changes” | No.54 September 2008 |
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Developing Women in Sport to Lead Social Change Mary A. Hums & Donna L. Pastore |
Sport can be a tool for promoting social change, and being in leadership positions helps one to work as an agent for social change. But what does it mean to work towards social change? Different societal actors can bring about social change, including cinema (Puttman, 2005), designers (Relph-Knight, 2005), playwrights (Backstage, 2003) and artists (Schroll, 2003). Jackie Robinson breaking the colour barrier in Major League Baseball would provide a good example of sport affecting social change, as would the role sport played in ending apartheid in South Africa. However, social change does not have to happen in the national spotlight. It can occur at the grassroots level as well. Individuals and organisations have the power to initiate and produce social change. Numerous women have acted as social change agents throughout the years. Susan B. Anthony, Coretta Scott King, Golda Mier and Mother Theresa greatly influenced society, worldwide, during their lives. The range of their impact was truly global in nature. But again, often the women whose names are not as familiar have had the greatest impact. This article focuses on how women can move into leadership positions in sport, where they can then affect social change. First we will discuss actions taken by several sport organisations and then we will address some strategies to help women move into leadership positions. Women as Leaders in Sport How many of these names do you recognise? Etsuko Ogasawara, Margaret Talbot, Catherine Beecher, Ann Cody, Gertrude Pfister, Donna Lopiano, Gudrun Doll-Tepper, Doris Corbett and Darlene Kluka? All of these women played a part in the development of sport, worldwide, acting as leaders in different industry segments. For many years, women have played important leadership roles in sport. From Senda Berensen who modified the game of basketball for women over 100 years ago, to the force behind the 2004 Athens Summer Olympic Games, Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki. Often times, these women were pioneers and many were considered to the the ‘first’ at doing something. While women have made progress in the field, it has been slow. They have been aided in their rise by concerted efforts from sport organisations generally, as well as sport organisations specifically for women. Organisations Grooming Future Leaders Several professional organisations exist to promote girls and women in sport. The International Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women (IAPESGW) has been a world leader in women’s physical education and sport since its inception in 1949 (Hall and Pfister, 1999). In North America, the National Association for Girls and Women in Sport (NAGWS), an association within the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD), acts as ‘the leading organisation for equity issues in sports – champions equal funding, quality and respect for girls’ and women’s sport’(AAPHERD, 2006). In the United States, the National Association of Collegiate Women Athletic Administrators (NACWAA) is dedicated to providing educational programs, professional and personal development opportunities, information exchange and support services to enhance college athletics and to promote the growth, leadership and success of women as athletics administrators, professional staff, coaches and student-athletes’(NACWAA, nd). The Women’s Sports Foundation (WSF) has been a driving force behind advancing women into leadership positions in North America. Similar organisations exist in various countries. For example, the Japanese Association for Women in Sport (JWS) has a five pronged mission, including education, participation, networking, coordination and leadership. Under the leadership prong, specific organisational objectives include: increasing the number of women in sport careers in general and in leadership and decision-making positions in particular; enhancing the status of women in sport; supporting personal career development of women in sport; developing training programs for teachers, coaches, administrators and referees; and helping women conduct research in sport (JWS, nd). The Canadian Association for the Advancement of Women and Sport and Physical Activity (CAAWS), formerly founded in 1981, adopted the following vision statement: ‘’CAAWS envisions an holistic and equitable sport and physical activity system in which Canadian girls and women have the right to all the benefits of participating in sport and physical activity, in which women participate as decision-makers and leaders, that reflects the experiences of girls and women, and is based on the reality of their lives” (CAAWS, nd). Among its strategic directions, CAAWS includes increasing the number of women in leadership roles in sport and physical activity in Canada (CAAWS, nd). Another example is European Women in Sport (EWS). This organisation grew out of a special working group of the European Sport Conference. In general, (EWS, 2006) ‘the main aim of the EWS is directed towards a sports culture of practised gender equality in terms of equal opportunities for girls and boys, women and men with regard to education and training, participation and promotion as well as codetermination in decision-making processes in sport. The EWS constitutes a network aimed at increasing the involvement of women in sport at all levels and in all functions and roles. For this purpose, the EWS serves the following objectives: To represent, defend and promote the interests of women in sport at a European level; To help increasing the number of women in decision-making bodies and in the administration of sport at all levels; To education women for decision-making in sport (eg through mentor programs). These organisations are specifically geared toward girls and women in sport, however other general sport organisations have also made efforts to promote women as leaders in sport. Actions by Sport Organisations Sport organisations have taken direct action to help ensure opportunities for women in leadership positions. For example, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) established minimum leadership percentages for women in managerial roles in International Federations (IFs) and National Olympic Committees (NOCs). According to the IOC, ‘by 31 December 2005, the NOCs, Ifs and sports bodies belonging to the Olympic Movement should establish as a goal that at least 20% of the positions in all their decision-making structures (in particular the executive and legislative bodies) are held by women. An initial target of having at least 10% of positions within decision-making bodies held by women was set for December 2000’(IOC, 2006). The IOC established the Women in Sport Commission, which acts in a consultative manner, providing information about the status of women in the Olympic Movement. The International Paralympic Committee has a similar structure, the Women in Sport Committee. Its function is ‘to advocate and advise on the strategies and policies to obtain the full inclusion of women and girls at all levels of Paralympic sport and the Paralympic Movement and identify barriers that restrict participation, recommend policies and initiatives to increase participation’ (IPC, 2006). Other projects have been undertaken as well. For example, the German Universities Sports Federation developed a mentoring program specifically directed towards young female professionals in sport (German Universities Sports Federation, 2005). The Women in Sport project, organised by the University Northumbria, had several goals, one of which was ‘to draw implications for good practice for developing women’s leadership roles in sport at a grass roots level’(University Northumbria, 1005, p184). These sport organisations are living proof of the benefits gained by promoting women to be leaders in the sport industry. From these, and other organisations that similarly embrace the importance of women holding leadership positions in sport, one can garner a list of best practices which will help increase leadership opportunities fo women. These best practices contribute to establishing a set of strategies which can help women continue to move into leadership positions. Strategies How then, can women continue to make strides in the sport industry and effect social change? To answer this question, it is helpful to take a step back in time to look at the numerous suggestions found in the sport literature dating back to the late 1980s. In the 1987 March issue of the Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, several articles highlighted strategies to reverse the declining percentage of females in high school coaching positions (eg Fowlkes, Coons, Bonner and Koppein, 1987; Oglesby, Shelton, Demchenko and Thumler, 1987). One strategy presented in these articles was workshops/clinics to encourage females to enter the profession. Several of these workshops, such as the Colorado “Sports Need You” program were successful (Schafer, 1987). It was purported the percentage of female high school coaches increased from 38% in 1983-84 to 41% in 1985-86 because of this program (Schafer, 1987). Workshops/clinics are a mechanism to promote women’s entry into the sporting industry. These types of activities expose future female leaders to the challenges and opportunities of the various segments of the sporting industry. Professional associations, such as IAPESGW, NAGWS and JWS are in positions to offer these activities. Social issues and concerns can be included as part of the workshop, helping prepare women to be agents of social change. Although workshops/clinics and other strategies, such as internships, are items for us to consider, a more important approach is that of mentoring and networking. In an historical study by Bower, Hums and Keedy (2006), mentors recognised the lack of females in leadership positions in campus recreation in the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s and saw this as a reason to mentor women to help them advance within campus recreation administration. An investigation completed by Young (1990) focused on athletic administrators’ perceptions toward mentoring and networking. Comments from Young (1990) stated “the data from this study suggest that educating young professionals in sport management about these two phenomena should be an essential part of their professional training”(p78). Many would unconditionally agree with Young since mentoring and networking are essential areas for not only professionals in athletics administration, but all women involved in the sport industry. Mentors serve many roles and according to Kram and Isabella (1985) mentors help proteges in both career development and psychosocial functions. We can equate career development functions as those roles in which the mentor provides assistance in coaching, sponsorship, providing challenging assignments, protection and exposure and visibility (Kram and Isabella, 1985; Ragins, 1997). On the other hand, psychosocial functions refer to support, friendship, acceptance and confirmation, counselling and role modelling (Kram and Isabella, 1985; Ragins, 1997). An article by Weaver and Chelladurai (1999) provides an excellent explanation of career and psychosocial functions. Weaver and Chelladurai (1999) indicated mentors perform career functions when they inform a protege of the manipulative games played in the organisation and the strategies necessary to be successful. In this situation, they provide coaching. It needs to be highlighted that coaching allows the protege to learn about which individuals in the organisation he/she can trust and receive support from, and determines which individuals have power and/or may be considered a liability to the protege. When a mentor ‘highlights the protege’s potential and presents the individual in a highly favourable light’(Weaver and Chelladurai, 1999, p28), this is considered sponsorship. Mentors help the prótege with ‘technical and managerial skills that will be useful later in a career when they present the protege with challenging assignments (p29). As far as protection, the goal is to help the protege avoid mistakes and when mistakes occur, the mentors helps take on the responsibility for this error. When the mentor gives the protege a chance to develop relationships with the decision makers, exposure and visibility has taken place. Weaver and Chelladurai (1999) mentioned the psychosocial functions occur when the protege shares personal and work experiences with the mentor. As ‘the mentor expresses confidence in the protege, confirms the individuals’ abilities, creates mutural trust and lends support and encouragement’ the acceptance and confirmation function has occurred (Weaver and Chelladurai, 1999, p29). Lastly, utilising the mentor’s guidance to solve conflicts is counselling, while setting an example which the protege desires to follow is role modelling. Besides the functions of mentoring, it is essential to understand the benefits and outcomes of mentoring if we are to effect social change. In a comprehensive mentoring model, Weaver and Chelladurai (1999) describe the outcomes for both the mentor and protege. In this model, a protege can experience two types of outcomes – advancement (ie salary, promotion, status and power) and growth (ie competence, identity and effectiveness). For the mentor, outcomes include intrinsic (eg satisfaction) and extrinsic rewards (eg continued promotion throughout an organisation because of the possible network of past and present proteges). In 2002, Weaver and Chelladurai examined parts of their mentoring model. A survey was mailed to 262 Divison I and 226 Division III assistant/associate athletic administrators. According to the results “an equal proportion of males and females had experienced mentoring relationships and mentored individuals were more satisfied with their work than their non-mentored counterparts (p96)’’. In 1990, Young surveyed 263 NCAA athletic administrators concerning mentoring and networking. The 68 item survey was completed by 157 females and 106 males. The top five benefits administrators received from their mentors included: encouragement and support; advice; an opportunity to increase their knowledge; guidance and direction; and constructive criticism. Additional benefits were found as well. The most interesting benefit was ‘strategies and inside information to ensure success in the profession (p75)’. In addition, Bower, Hums and Keedy (2006) found that for women in campus recreation, access to professional development opportunities was also a benefit derived from mentoring. Based on this finding and other information in the literature, mentoring is a way for us to help each other and affect social change. Therefore, if we take time to mentor individuals, we will affect social change in the sport industry. Summary Women in sport can affect social change. In order for this to happen, women must first get into leadership positions in sport. Numerous sports organisation have taken concrete steps to help women secure these leadership positions. Two major strategies which help create opportunities are workshops/seminars and mentoring. By passing along the information women need to become successful leaders, more women will be able to access leadership positions. Once in those positions, the keys to unlocking the doors to social change are theirs. References AAHPERD (2006). Welcome to the National Association for Girls and Women in Sport. Retrieved 26 September 2006 fromwww.aahperd.org/nagws/ Backstage (2003). The playwright: an instrument of social change? Backstage.com Retrieved 28 September 2006 from http://web.lexis-nexis.com.echo.louisville.edu/universe/document?_m=949714db64cb23c3a4fae1d962f921d4&_docnum=54&wchp=dGLbVlb-zSkVb&_md5=b52e36ab9f3d9edfffe02760341ed7dd Bower, G.G, Hums, M.A. and Keedy, J. (2006). Factors influencing the willingness to mentor females in leadership positions within campus recreation: An historical perspective. Advancing Women in Leadership Online Journal, 20. Retrieved 8 October 2006 fromwww.advancingwomen.com/awl/spring2006/Bower_Hums_Keedy.html CAAWS (nd). CAAWS vision and mission. Retrieved 4 october 2006 from www.caaws.ca/e/about/mission_vision.cfm Fowlkes, M., Coons, B., Bonner, P. and Koppein, L. (1987) The Wisconsin ides: A grassroots approach to quality coaching for girls’sports. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 58, 36-40. German Universities Sports Federation (2005). Job perspective or voluntary work. In G. Doll-Tepper, G. Pfister, D. Scoretz and C. Bilan, Sport, women and leadership (pp 181-183) Bonn, Germany: Bundesinstitut fuer Sportwissenshcaft. Hall, M.A. and Pfister, G. (1999). Honoring the legacy: Fifty years of the International Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women. Nanaimo, BC: North Isle Printers Ltd. IOC (2006) Targets. Retrieved 26 September 2006 from www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/missions/women/activities/leaders_uk.asp IPC (2006). Function. Retrieved 26 September 2006 from www.paralympic.org/release/Main_Sections_Menu/IPC/Organization/Standing_Committees/Commission_Women_Sport/index.html JWS (nd) Our mission. Retrieved 2 October 2006 from www.jws.or.jp/eng/index.html Kram, K.E. and Isabella, L.A. (1985) Mentoring alternatives: The role of peer relationships in career development. Academy of Management Journal, 28, 11-32. NACWAA (nd) Mission. Retrieved 26 September 2006 from www.nacwaa.org/about/about_mission.php Oglesby, C.A., Shelton, C.A., Demchenko, V. and Thumler, B.B. (1987) COACH project: Coaches and officials acquire competencies here. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 58, 40-44. Puttnam, D. (2005). Life through the lens: Films have never just been about entertainment – they have also been a powerful force for social change. New Statesman. Retrieved 28 September from http://web.lexis-nexis.com.echo.lousiville.edu/universe/document?_m=224fa8a4fee750655565d50c9788d1b3&_docnum=16&wchp=dGLbVlb-zSkVb&_md5=29b6b41934a17f69265f0fe82326e996 Ragins, B.R., Cotton, J.L. and Miller, J.S. (2000). Marginal mentoring: The effects of type of mentor, quality of relationship and program desing on work and career attitudes. Academy of Management Journal, 43, 1177-1194. Relph-Knight, K. (2005). Design has a persuasive role to play in social change. Retrieved 28 September 2006 from http://web.lexis-nexis.com.echo.lousiville.edu/universe/document?_m=224fa8a4fee750655565d50c9788d1b3&_docnum=23&wchp=dGLbVlb-zSkVb&_md5=29a468e2c96c2b33cfe7052e4f8e8ff7 Schafer, S.P. (1987) Sports Need You: The Colorado Model. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 58, 44-47. Schroll, S. (2003) Art and Social Change 1920-1950. Library Journal. Retrieved 28 September 2006 from http://web.lexis-nexis.com.echo.lousiville.edu/universe/document?_m=949714db64cb23c3a4fae1d962f921d4&_docnum=56&wchp=dGLbVlb-zSkVb&_md5=4a3c4d636a5b22677538c1878967b9a1 University Northumbria (2005) Wome into sport: A case study from the north east of England. In G. Doll-Tepper, G. Pfister, D. Scoretz and C. Bilan, Sport, women and leadership (pp 184-186) Bonn, Germany: Bundesinstitut fuer Sportwissenschaft. Weaver, M.A. and Chelladurai, P. (1999) A mentoring model for management in sport and physical education. Quest, 51, 24-38. Weaver, M.A. and Chelladurai, P. (2002) Mentoring in intercollegiate athletics administration. Journal of Sport Management, 16, 96-116. Wright, S.C. and Smith, D.E. (2000). A case for formalised mentoring. Quest, 52, 200-213. Young, D. (1990). Mentoring and networking: Perceptions by athletic administrators. Journal of Sport Management, 4, 71-79. Contact Prof. Dr. Mary A. Hums University of Louisville Louisville, USA e-mail: mhums@louisville.edu Donna L. Pastore The Ohio State University Ohio,USA http://www.icsspe.org/portal/index.php?w=1&z=5 Developing Women in Sport to Lead Social Change Mary A. Hums & Donna L. Pastore