|  | Feature: “Mega Sport Events in Developing Countries” | No.53 May 2008 |
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Assessing Development of the 2010 Soccer World Cup Cora Burnett |
Abstract By hosting the 2010 Soccer World Cup, South Africa takes Africa to the global sporting stage. Diverse paradigms informed the conceptual framework for developing a rationale and indicator fields for an impact assessment of this global event. Focusing on human and social development, indicators should be refined and could as such be related to the Millennium Development Goals. The context of poverty provides baseline data, whereas event-related change according to a pre-post design and cost-benefit analysis provide the scope for impact assessment in the fields of economic, social, health (reflecting quality of life) and sport and recreation. The expected liminality of the event may translate into significant political, social and cultural change for which advanced planning and leverage needs to be in place to maximise prospective results. Keywords: Sport event, Sport development, Impact Assessment, Millennium Goals. Introduction The politically inspired slogan for the 2010 FIFA World Cup - In Africa for Africa - holds a highly emotive tag for developing African countries of which South Africa has to showcase the best the continent has to offer (South Africa 2010, 2008). This anti-colonial rhetoric expressed in a pan-Africanist slogan, ‘its Africa’s turn’ is reminiscent of the international struggle against apartheid. It implies that as host country, South Africa will be positioned as the ‘engine of growth’ for the southern and central African region (Alegi, 2001). It is equally challenging to find common ground and synergy between the eight UN Millennium Development Goals and possible outcomes or impacts of the 2010 Soccer World Cup (UNICEF, 2002 and 2005). This paper will address the potential evidence base of comparable mega-event impact studies that will inform a rationale for guiding impact assessment of the 2010 Soccer World Cup which is to be held in ten different venues in South Africa. A conceptual framework of cost-benefit analysis placed on a value-continuum of potential impact may also provide impetus for social leverage and agency in planning and implementation of on-site events for optimal impact. Mega Sport Events and Impact Interdisciplinary research projects and diverse research paradigms within sociology, anthropology and environmental sciences are implemented to assess, evaluate and predict the developmental outcomes of projects, programmes and events (Rossi, Freeman & Lipsey, 1999). Focused, multi and inter-disciplinary approaches resulted in as much fusion and confusion in terms of finding conceptual frameworks that may adequately explain impact over time as ‘registered’ or ‘tangible’ change substantiated by a viable evidence base. Government agents may need the evidence base to substantiate their political claims as much as commercial agents that would like to demonstrate that the ‘profit’ is for the common good of the consumers (Gratton, Dobson and Shibli, 2000). In accordance with indicators indentified by various impact studies and packaged for development programmes in the context of African poverty, the S·DIAT (Sport-in-Development Impact Assessment Tool) (Burnett and Hollander, 2007), two main indicator bands are identified. The first one relates to the governance and management of a programme or event that directly impacts on the potential deliverable and sustainable changes that can be ascribed to such an intervention or happening. The second indicator band constitutes social and human development which manifests at different levels of society (Burnett and Uys, 2000). Sport events are often defined in terms of their potential positive impacts, rather than in neutral phenomenological terms. In this sense, the conceptualisation of sport events as planned occurrences of limited duration which have an extraordinary impact (Saayman, Saayman and du Plessis, 2005) or that it enhances the awareness and appeal of the host area as a future tourist destination spot (Ritchie, 1988), indicates how cause and effect are intertwined with the semantics of the phenomenon. Impacts at the different levels are inevitably inter-linked to reflect similar manifestations at the level of society, the community and/or individual to collectively convey an understanding of the complex whole. The feeling of a collective euphoria at the macro- or national level may thus be interpreted in terms of social cohesion and nation-building, whereas it manifests as community integration at the meso-level and as an increased feeling of self-worth and belonging at the micro- or individual level (Chalip, 2006). The latter indicator band (identified as social and human development) should thus be subdivided in different indicator fields that have been developed through various case studies and informed by literature from different paradigms and contexts (Anderson, Rustad and Solberg, 2004; Cunningham and Beneforti, 2005). The seven indicator fields identified for the S·DIAT were collapsed into four as the Economic Impact domain also included an ‘indirect component’ such as ‘Education and Training’ and some aspects of the ‘Physical Environmental Development’ as they translate into potential increased assets for economic survival, the finding of employment and access to resources (Burnett, 2007). Social Impact translates into the forging of mutually beneficial relationships, networking, social integration, inclusive of the political and cultural dynamics and normative behaviour that indirectly relates to social deviance, criminal behaviour with safety and security as the flip side of such phenomena. Sport, recreation and physical activity as indicator field mainly focus on participation and other directly sports-related phenomena. Selective integration of some of these aspects constitutes the indicator field profiling Health and Quality of life, representing the human development component. The selection and formulation of indicators are critical in planning for, implementing and assessing impact. The tool that is to measure impact should also be sensitive to pre-event positioning of stakeholders and/or recipients. Andersson, Rustad and Solberg (2004) utilised prospect theory to ask research participants to put a monetary evaluation to sports events as to distinguish people who are willing to pay (WTP) to host an event in ear-marked extra curricular taxes, and those who are willing to be compensated for giving away an event (WTA). This type of quantification is also linked to potential positive and negative impacts as indicated in Table 1. Table 1: Impact of sport as hallmark events adapted from Ritchie (1988) and Ohmann, Jones and Wilkes (2006)
Impact | Positive | Negative
--- | --- | ---
Economic, Tourism/ Commercial | Increased expenditures Employment opportunities Education and training Marketing of region as a tourism destination | Price increases during the event Real estate speculation Short-term contract work Limited access of rural poor to employment opportunities
Infrastructure and Physical Resources | New improved infrastructure and local facilities | Under-used sports and associated facilities after the event Limited access and redistribution of resources Long term management and maintenance
Social, Cultural and Political Aspects | International recognition of region (resort and investment) Propagation of political values and ideology Social integration and ‘nation-building’ Local, community and national identity and pride Revitalising traditions Increased security at events | Exclusion of minorities Displacement of tenants Divisions due to exclusion (e.g. race, gender and class) Distortion of nature and ‘effect’ of event Manipulation of community and disruption of community life Selective representation and inter-group hostility Increased theft, traffic congestion, noise and prostitution
Psychological and Health/ Quality of Life | Local pride/national pride (liminality) Awareness of outsiders’ perceptions Increase of quality of life for higher socio-economic classes due to improved amenities Access to health services and health education | Defensive attitudes regarding host regions Fan delinquency, crowding, noise Loss of control over local environment Misunderstandings and intra-group loyalty leading to host/visitor hostility Reduce quality of life for low-income groups due to inflated goods and services Disrupt local life style
Sport and Recreation | Programmes, services and facilities (see infrastructure) Education and training Participation/opportunities Increased voluntarism and community group activity (inter-cultural interaction) | Temporary access and regional focus Quality programmes and structures to sustain them Access to needs-based accredited training to enhance employability Access, resources and structures for sustained delivery Biased towards elite performance
Although some aspects have been listed under the different indicator fields, the relevancy may only become clear if they are explored within an assessment and development framework (Davidson, 2007). Assessing Impact of the 2010 Soccer World Cup The South African Government has committed itself to invest in infrastructure, logistics, communications and security to leave a lasting legacy. For example, the Government plans to contribute to build and/or upgrade ten stadium’s stands at R17.4 billion. A total of about R400 billion will be invested in the country’s infrastructure, from rail freight services and energy production to communications, airports and ports of entry. Non-infrastructure spending includes investments made on sport and recreation programmes such as R25 million for the preparation of volunteers; R17 million for multi-sport code festivals and recreation events; and R337 million for Leaving a Legacy projects that will focus on a sports club support programme, capacity building and placement in sport federations, development programmes at grassroots level, talent identification and coach development. The arts and culture sector will benefit from a R150 million investment for the World Cup opening and closing ceremonies, revitalising community art centres that will assist the sector to take advantage of increase tourism. A projected R666 million will be spent on safety and security (South Africa 2010, 2008). It is thus clear that the South African Government has invested heavily in the 2010 World Cup and has several developmental targets to reach that aim to leave a sustainable legacy, with an ongoing impact on the South African population within geographical development nodes, especially centred around the ten selected venue sites where games will take place (South Africa 2010, 2008). Economic impact The potential boost for the national economy forms a persuasive argument for governments to compete for hosting mega sporting events. According to the consulting firm Grant Thornton, the 2010 World Cup will pump around R21.3 billion into South Africa’s economy, generating an estimated R12.7 billion in direct spending and creating an estimated 159 000 new jobs. The country’s tourism industry could benefit from the estimated three million visitors expected for the tournament, while many South African based businesses will benefit, particularly place empowerment initiatives (South Africa 2010 World Cup, 2008). Additional direct expenditure, the contribution of billions to the GDP, creation of new jobs, increased tourism and increased tax revenues are most widely quoted by bidding committees, despite available evidence that shows that such figures are grossly inadequate in forecasting economic benefits. The cost can often outweigh the benefits in an economy evidenced by modest investment and growth and high unemployment (Alegi, 2001). Crucial questions relate to what the tangible benefits are for the average township which are most likely to find short-term, low-wage employment in the service or construction sector resident. As governments subsidize world-class spectator facilities from public funds, other community facilities, programmes and/or services may experience cut-backs, widening the economic gap between ‘haves’ (including tourists) and ‘have-nots’ (Archer and Bouillon, 1982; Booth, 1998). Despite the acknowledgement of the 2006 Soccer World Cup having relatively little economic impact on the German economy, whilst mainly benefiting the event industry (Buss, 2007), public debate and academic discourse show increased interest in the economic importance of major sport events on national and local scale (Gratton, Dobson and Shibli, 2000). There are many rival models and approaches on how to determine economic impact, the utilization of multipliers in a cost-benefit analysis (Kesenne, 2005), the effect of commercialization and professionalisation of football (Merkel, 2006), spending patterns and consumer profiles established such as in Potchefstroom (Saayman et al., 2005) and the socio-economic impacts of sport tourism as evidenced in a case study of Durban Unicity (Turco et al., 2003) and urban regeneration (Gratton et al., 2000). Indirect economic impacts are inevitably linked to marketing, consumer behaviour, education, training and networking prior, during and after the sports event (O’Brien and Gardiner, 2006). Social impact Social impact of an event is paradoxically the most visible, yet the least tangible and quantifiable. Buss (2007) argued that it was the socio-political meaning in terms of creating a new form of patriotism that brought about a sense of national identification. Political leaders tap into this public and sentimental display of collective celebration as they are transcended to world statesmen and advocates of national unification (Alegi, 2001). State-driven national pride and the political significance of nation-building thus provide the stage for national leaders to address national and international political issues. The bragging rights for the 2010 Soccer World Cup is very much vested in eliciting an African identity capsulated in a sense of achievement by South Africa on behalf of the African continent (South Africa 2010, 2008). The liminality (feeling of togetherness) and associated sense of community thus foster social capital for inter- and intra-continental, nation-state bonding and cooperation between diverse communities whereby the social fabric of a society is re-affirmed and national identities, as well as differences explored (Azara and Crouch, 2006). As an ongoing source of social imagination, the liminality generated by an event has flow-on consequences for social relations and networking (Lewis, 1999). The celebration and camaraderie translate into a sense of belonging that has social significance beyond the actual event (Green and Chalip, 1998). It also enables discourse by bringing diverse groups together (Shinn and Toohey, 2003) and creates a safe space to symbolically address controversial issues. One such a public display of black-white reconciliation occurred at the Sydney Olympic Games was in the role of Cathy Freeman who vividly represented the Aboriginal cause and became a celebrated national hero of a new era (Chalip, 2006). A similar discourse was metaphorically expressed during the 1995 Rugby World Cup by Mandela who publically embraced the springbok as national symbol (Steenveld and Strelitz, 1998). The promotion of ‘One Team, One Country’ was politically sanctioned and formed the basis of a continued racial discourse of inclusion and representation (Booth, 1998). The ‘feel good factor’ and celebratory nature of sport events engender ‘liminoid space’ that can foster social value through a sense of community. In this sense, sport events may also provide a stage for black youth to shed their feelings of marginality and bask in the (fleeting) sensation of ‘being a global force’ (Nixon, 1994:135). The national team as much as the event symbolises the image of national, racial and/or class identification (Crabbe and Wagg, 2006). Pre-event activities such as training camps, programmes and festivals may also contribute to the formation of meaningful social networks and have short or long term impacts on the host community (O’Brien and Gardiner; 2006 Urniaz, 2006). Longer-term impacts on safety and security relate to the community regeneration programme and ongoing allocation of resources to affected communities (Allegi, 2001; Grattin et al., 2000). The hosting of mega events often generates the formation of ‘growth regimes’ in a region or city. Such entities represent networks of public and/or private decision makers that may find ways of addressing development and social issues at the local level as to improve the quality of life of members in a community (Burbank, Andranovich & Heying, 2001). Quality of life The quality of life or health-related issues often take a back seat as possible consequences that may result from hosting an event. It is possibly the long-term nature of potential effects that excludes the tracing of these impacts at the individual level in a medium term. The unit of data analysis is mostly centred on the collective effect, however acknowledging that the psychological factors, such as an improved self-image, self efficacy and mood changes inherent in the cathartic value of being part of an event (Gratton et al., 2000). Sport and recreation The impact on sport and physical recreation at the human and social developmental level mainly refers to an increased awareness of a healthy and active lifestyle. A significant impact in increased participation was recorded as a result of the 2006 Soccer World Cup in Germany (Buss, 2007). The estimated R8.4 billion that will be spent on building and renovating ten World Cup stadiums, the training of volunteers, multi-sport festivals, recreation events and grass roots development projects all add to capacity building and resource provision that are earmarked for providing more opportunities and quality experiences in sport and recreation across the country. Tracing impact of the event only, would thus not adequately represent the conglomerate of initiatives that will be implemented and comparative profiles could be established for impact analysis (South Africa 2010, 2008). Delivering on the Millenium Development Goals By adopting Resolution 58/5 and recognising the potential role of sport towards reaching the Millennium Development Goals, United Nations member states are committed to deliver on these goals (United Nations, 2006). The ‘development through sport’ model also holds true for hosting mega events as it is premised on the potential role sport could play to promote health, combat anti-social behaviour, enhance collaboration and social integration, psychological benefits and generate economic gains to combat poverty and associated disease profiles (UK Sport, 2005). It is thus inevitable that major spending on hosting the 2010 Soccer World Cup is envisaged to have a major development thrust. Against the background of potential impact of such mega events on host countries, the role of sport in contributing to sustainable development within a human justice framework should guide the development of success indicators. The following table provides an analytical overview of the potential roles of sport, and accompanying programmes and services, inclusive of an event of this magnitude, could play in addressing the Millennium Development Goals. Table 2: The potential roles of sport to address the Millennium Development Goals
Millenium Development Goals (MDG) | Poteltial Roles of Sport towards Achieving the MDG
--- | ---
1 Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger | Provide development opportunities. Employment in sport industry and events. Life skills for productive life.
2 Achieve universal primary education | Access to quality education. Promote positive values & skills. Improve attendance of schools by offering sport and physical education.
3 Promote gender equality and empowerment of women and girls | Life skills and leadership. Promotion of self-esteem and confidence. Inclusive participation and social integration. Awareness and avoidance of gender stereotyping and prejudice. Equitable distribution of resources.
4 & 5 Reduce child mortality and improve maternal health | Advocacy and communication (health messages). Access to health services. Promote healthy lifestyle for women.
6 Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases | Advocacy and communication (health messages through role models and programmes). Access to health services. Promote healthy lifestyle for women. Combat stigma and build networks for inclusion.
7 Ensure environmental sustainability | Awareness of preservation and care of environment. Accessible infrastructure well managed to deliver needs-based programmes to all.
8 Develop a global partnership | Opportunities for innovative partnerships for development at all levels.
Conclusion There is a large scale critique on spending billions of currency without the guarantee that disadvantaged communities will reap lasing developmental benefits from hosting the 2010 Soccer World Cup. South Africa is a country struggling to sufficiently deliver on poverty alleviation, infrastructure development for basic housing, water supply and electricity. Against the background of rising intra-racial inequalities and survival issues, the question is asked from a moral and economic perspective if the country can really afford such large scale budgetary expenditures (Alegi, 2001). In view of the event happening in 2010, the question is now rephrased to inquire what the benefits would be and if they could outweigh the cost in more terms than mere financial ones. Keeping in mind that South Africa is in the planning phase, cognisance should be taken of the inherent liminality and communitas by planning for optimal impact. 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Contact Prof. Dr. Cora Burnett University of Johannesburg Johannesburg, South Africa Email: corab@uj.ac.za http://www.icsspe.org/portal/index.php?w=1&z=5 Assessing Development of the 2010 Soccer World Cup Cora Burnett