| Feature | No.37 February 2003 |

Research Methodology for Sport Science Prof. Dr. h.c. H. Haag, M.S., Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel, Germany |

Introduction For ICSSPE, as an umbrella organisation, and for the various disciplines of sport science, the issue of research methodology (RM) is a topic of central concern. RM is an issue in every theory and theme field of sport science. Of course there are specific aspects as related to the individual theory and theme fields. However, there is a common foundation which is valid for science in general but also for sport science specifically. The issue of RM is also closely linked to the questions of function, body of knowledge and theory-practice relationships as basic issues in order to understand the nature of sport science as an academic field. To lay a common base of understanding the terms method, methods and methodology - as related to science - are described in the "Dictionary of Sport Science" (Beyer, 1987) in the following way: Method "In science in general: procedures or activities for gaining an understanding through observation, experiment, test, interview, analysis, statistics, discussion, or reflection. When knowledge and understanding is purposely aimed at through the application of Method, one can also use the term research methods. In a specific way, the repertoire of method. can be differentiated into analytic (inductive), deductive, descriptive, dialectic, experimental, genetic, hermeneutic, progressive (deductive), regressive (inductive), speculative, synthetic (deductive) method. Distinctions according to scientific disciplines are, for example, natural scientific, and historical method. or method. in the humanities. If only one method. is considered valid in gaining knowledge, there is a monistic point of view; if more than one method is possible or desirable within a scientific field there is a pluralistic view. The application of specific research methods presupposes the use of certain tools and research techniques such as sample survey, case study, formulation of hypotheses, setting of the protocol, content analysis, selection of test batteries, research design, statistical evaluation, or symbolic language" (pp. 404-405). Methods "The study and theory of methods and their applications. Methods are systematic and deliberate procedures or ways of gaining knowledge (Method; Methodology), of transmitting knowledge, abilities, and skills (education). In this respect, the use and application of method. depend upon the nature of the respective knowledge and transmission of knowledge" (p. 406). Methodology "Theory of the methods and procedures of scientific inquiry and understanding. From a general scientific and theoretical point of view, methodology. is a branch of logic or logistic. The task of methodology. is to identify, classify, explain and substantiate the forms of thought, means of analysis, methods of inquiry, concepts, principles, categories, and classification systems which have stood the test of time and have general application in the scientific domain. To this extent, methodology. provides both the analysis and critique of the sciences and the scientific method. Note: In particular, methodology is also considered the theory of research techniques. As a scientific, theoretical analysis of the scientific effort, methodology is concerned with the development of simple concepts, the explication of complex notions, the nature of the variables to be analysed, the possibility of operationalising concepts, the construction of explanatory schemata, the logical analysis of existing theories, the strategies of constructing and testing theories, the formulation of hypotheses, the planning of research, and the systematisation and formalisation of existing knowledge. Every science can form a special methodology, based on the concept of general methodology, as a special case for those methods of inquiry and techniques of research which it employs. This is also the case for sport science" (pp. 408-409). Nature and Function of Sport Science An ad-hoc working group of ICSSPE with the name "Research Methodology in Sport Science" developed a position statement - accepted by ICSSPE - which also relates to research methodology. The major aspects are (ICSSPE, 1994): 1. Question: What is the Function of Sport Science? I. Nature of Sport Science The purpose of sport science as a specific academic discipline is to focus on human physical activities like sports, games, play and exercise in their individual social context. The nature of sport science is to involve an extensive variety of theoretical approaches and specific methods which represent qualitative and quantitative approaches, strategies and techniques of research. 3.The nature of sport science is to accumulate a body of knowledge and to propose guidelines to help spectives on sport, play, game and exercise settings (SPGE). II. Functions of Sport Science The function of sport science is to create, develop, refine, and confirm a body of knowledge that focuses upon the following items: Identify and describe the basic structure and essential characteristics of SPGE. Develop a description and understanding of the historical-social context of SPGE, as well as of the meaning and significance of SPGE for the individual and for society. Develop and describe proper standards of conduct within and surrounding SPGE. Develop concepts and methods of instruction and education. As well as exercise and training techniques for individuals participating in SPGE. III. Future Orientations and Directions Ideally, sport science will be advanced as well as contribute more significantly when: specialists within a parent discipline co-operate and continuously produce a substantial and meaningful body of knowledge specialists among a sport science specialisation co-operate and continuously produce a substantial and meaningful body of knowledge each sport science specialisation interacts with its parent discipline as well as with related specialisations in order to further the respective bodies of knowledge. sport science specialists interact with those who deliver professional services to various constituencies in order to improve these services and benefits, and to receive feedback on the usefulness of the research, as well as new ideas for research. 2. Question: What is the Body of Knowledge of Sport Science? It is possible to identify three distinct components of the body of knowledge of sport science: the core or central areas of a specialisation, a group of closely-related disciplines, and a variety of interdisciplinary thematic concerns. Each of these three components is outlined in what follows: I. The Sport Science Specialisations:
- Sport biomachanics - Sport history - Sport medicine - Sport pedagogy | - Sport philosophy - Sport physiology - Sport psychology - Sport sociology
II. Examples of the Academic Disciplines to which Sport Science and its Specialisations Can Establish and Have Established Close Relationships:

- Anatomy - Anthropology - Architecture - Chemistry - Communication science - Environmental science - Information science | - Law - Mathematics - Managament - Nutrition - Performing arts - Politics

It is important to realise that there are many other academic disciplines and specialisations within sport science, indicating its broadening impact and growth.
III. There is a Third Way of Describing The Body of Knowledge of Sport Science; Namely, by Using a Thematic Approach:
There is a wide variety of themes related to sport science. The specific character of the thematic approach is that research results are merged by integrating various specialisations of sport science, in relation to certain themes.
There are two types of such themes: those that have a close relationship to the core of sport sciences, and those which have a more general character.
Some primary examples are:

- Study of Coaching - Study of Health | - Study of Movement - Study of Play

3. Question: What is the Research Methodology of Sport Science?
The research methodology of sport science - which includes conceptualisation, research design, data collection, data analysis, and interpretation - is determined by the questions raised, issues to be resolved, and intended implications for, or applications to, participants in sport, as well as other people and circumstances surrounding sport settings. The logic of the research process should be continuously evaluated. Sport does not necessarily require unique research methodology. However, intelligent approaches to, and in, sport science need to be made and will be directed by the substance of the content of interest and the problems being addressed.
It is important that researchers representing different specialisations with unique research problems to be investigated be very familiar with the most appropriate, effective, and innovative methodology. Well known and traditional methodologies already incorporated in particular specialisations (e.g. socio-cultural) may be innovatively used in other specialisations in sport science (e.g. bio-medical). There is a wide assortment of available approaches with which it is necessary to be familiar. When making decisions in selection, good judgement must be used.
Furthermore, the transfer of sport science knowledge to sport, game, and exercise settings is extremely important. From the relevant issues determined studies conducted, and conclusions reached, the process of transmitting this knowledge to the professional community, and the public at large, should be effective and ongoing. As well, the evaluation of the effectiveness of this process and subsequent outcomes of this process should be continuously monitored.
It must be continuously emphasised that ethical practice should be followed throughout the entire research process, as well as during all application phases utilising the result.
4. Question: What is the Theory-Practice Relationship in Sport Science?
Obviously, research can be primarily conceptually-driven (fundamental approaches), with the intent of contributing to the body of knowledge for understanding questions and issues related to sport, play, games, and exercises (SPGE). Or, the immediate concern might be action-centred, to deal with practical problems and to provide scientific guidance as to how to resolve them. Most research associated with sport science probably involves concerns for both theory and application. Usually problems and issues arising, and being identified within specific SPGE experiences, lead to scientific research, which attempts to contribute to the body of knowledge and, consequently, the implications are that most research in the area would ultimately be application-centred.
There is the possibility of practice-guided theory and theory-guided practice. However, this two-fold relationship has to be seen in a continuum since the degree of this theory-practice relationship varies from one research project to another.
If one considers that research projects can be either self-generated or solicited from others, it is apparent that the reciprocal relationship between theory and practice or practice and theory is often more obvious with solicited research than with research which is self-generated. That is, solicited research is more often concerned with the attainment of practical or applied results than with the generation of new theory.
For the sound development of the theory-practice relationship in sport science, it is also necessary that institutions of higher learning, as well as private sector research units, emphasise, to a greater extent than is currently the case, that the application of research results to practice is an important part of the complete research process and one, therefore, that should not be overlooked.
It should perhaps also be mentioned, once again, that all pertinent ethical concerns and issues should be carefully considered in research of all types.
Last, but not least can we find in the introduction of the new and revised edition of the ICSSPE Directory of Sport Science (formally known as the Vade Mecum) an indication and relationship to the construct of research methodology which is part of the presentation of each theory field and theme field in the following six parts:

I Historical Development II Function III Body of Knowledge | VI Research Methodology V Theory-Practice Relationship VI Future Perspectives

Examples for Text Books in Research Methodology as Related to Sport Science
This survey relates only to publications in the English language. It can be assumed that literature published in English has the largest representation all over the world. The following criteria were used for the presentation of the text books dealing with issues of RM:

> (a) A short statement taken out of the textbooks as well as the content table (sometimes shortened) is included
> (b) A comparative analysis is given using a matrix for providing a rough overview.

Hubbard, A.W. (1973). Research Methods in Health. Physical Education, and Recreation (3rd Ed.). Washington D.C.: AAHPER.
"The need for a fresh, up-to-date view of research methods in health, physical education, and recreation areas is the principal reason for this third edition of Research Methods. New ideas and approaches in research techniques are constantly being introduced, and it is important for the research worker (whether he is a beginning graduate student or an experienced researcher) to be aware of the latest techniques. This book is intended to continue the tradition of the two previous editions in presenting the newest approaches as reported by leading experts" (Preface).
Contents
PART I INTRODUCTION
1 Why This Research?
2 Overview of Research: Basic Principles
PART II PREPARATIONS
3 Selecting and Defining a Research Problem
4 Searching the Literature
PART III INSTRUMENTATION ; DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
5 Introduction to Instrumentation
6 Instrumentation : Software
7 Instrumentation : Hardware
8 Collecting Data
9 Understanding Statistics
PART IV BASIC RESEARCH METHODS
10 Experiment Research
11 Descriptive Research
12 The Historical Method
13 The Philosophic Method of Research
14 Writing Proposals, Theses, Dissertations, Research Articles
15 Oral Research Report
PART V APPENDICES
A. Selected Lists of Abstracts, Bibliographies, Digits and Indices
B. Selected Bibliography: Laboratory Instrumentation
The American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Researching (AAHPER) published the first Edition of this book in 1949. The second edition followed 1959. Thus it becomes clear that the professional organisation of AAHPER has, since the end of World War II, taken a deep interest in issues of RM.
Clarke, D.H. & Clarke, H.H. (1970). Research Processes in Physical Education, Recreation, and Health. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
"Although intended for the beginner investigator, Research Processes in Physical Education, Recreation, and Health should provide some suggestions for experienced researchers. The various research methods are presented in sufficient detail so that they can be applied by the scientist. Selected complete studies are described throughout in order to illustrate the various research processes considered. The content is sufficient to provide a graduate course in research methods; in addition, an adequate coverage of elementary statistics as related to essential research applications is included" (p. iii).
Contents
PART I INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH
Chapter 1 Importance and Meaning of Research
Chapter 2 The Problem
Chapter 3 Literature Search
PART II NONLABORATORY STUDIES
Chapter 4 Historical Method
Chapter 5 Philosophical Studies
Chapter 6 Surveys and Case Studies
PART III STATISTICAL APPLICATIONS
Chapter 7 Distribution, Central Tendency, Percentiles
Chapter 8 Measures of Variability
Chapter 9 The Normal Curve
Chapter 10 Reliability and Tests of Significance
Chapter 11 Product-moment Correlation
PART IV LABORATORY RESEACH
Chapter 12 Laboratory and Experimental Search
Chapter 13 Physiology of Exercise
Chapter 14 Motor Learning
Chapter 15 Psychological Studies
Chapter 16 Kinesiological Research
Chapter 17 Growth and Development
PART V THE RESEARCH REPORT
Chapter 18 Preparation of the Research Report
The late H.H. Clarke (Eugene, Oregon, USA) as well as his son D.H. Clarke (College Park, Maryland, USA) can be regarded as prominent researchers in sport science in the 20th century. Therefore the inclusion of this textbook on RM is proving the standard of know-how in realising research in sport science as expressed in this textbook.
Cicciarella, Ch.F. (1997). Research in Physical Education, Exercise Science, and Sport. Scottsdale: Gorsuch Scarisbrick.
"The concepts, resources, tools, and ethics of research are widely accepted as fundamentally important for graduate level preparation of professionals in exercise science, physical education, coaching, sport management, and related fields of endeavour. Additionally, there is increasing recognition of a need for exposure to the skills required for intelligent consumption for research in undergraduate training. At the same time there is a trend toward a broader view of what constitutes scholarship, one that is inclusive of a wide range of kinds and methods of inquiry. There is a need, therefore, for a textbook in research methods applied to sports-related fields of study that provides skills relevant to both the production and consumption of research, that is cognisant of the many dimensions of sport-related professions, and that recognises a very broad interpretation of what constitutes research. Research in Physical Education, Exercise Science, and Sport: An Introduction is written to meet these needs" (p. XV).
Contents
1 The Practice of Research
2 Completing the Academic Research Requirement
3 The Research Report
4 Libraries and Related Resources
5 Measuring
6 Matters of Design
7 Descriptive Research Methods
8 Experimental Research Concepts
9 Historical Research Methods
10 Exploratory and Qualitative Research Methods
11 Data Presentation
12 Elementary Statistics
13 Relationships among Variables
14 Making Group Comparisons
15 Ethical Issues in Research
On Page VII -XI there is a very detailed content table available with a huge number of subdivisions. This is the reason why this textbook can almost be used as a dictionary explaining the major terms as related to "Research Methodology for Sport Science".
Baumgartner, T.A. & Strong, C.H. (1998). Conducting and Reading Research in Health and Human Performance (2nd Ed.). Boston: WCB/McGraw-Hill.
"This book was developed based on the methods its authors have used to teach the master´s-level introduction to research course for many years. It is assumed that students come to this course with varied backgrounds in areas related to health and human performance, such as dance, exercise science, health, kinesiology, physical education, recreation, and sports management. The two major objectives of our courses are to teach the student how to conduct their own research and how to read with understanding the research that others have done. The book is comprehensive yet practical and understandable. Many examples of the application of various research methods and techniques are presented in an attempt to increase the students' grasp of the research process" (p. xiii).
PART I - THE RESEARCH PROCESS
1 The Nature and Purpose of Research
2 The Research Problem
3 Selected Elements of the Research Process
4 Selection of Research Subjects: Sampling Procedures
PART II - TYPES OF RESEARCH
5 Experimental Research
6 Descriptive Research
7 Historical Research
8 Creative Activities
9 Qualitative Research
PART III - DATA ANALYSIS
10 Descriptive Data Analysis
11 Inferential Data Analysis
PART IV - THE RESEARCH REPORT
12 The Research Report
The book has a dual function. On one side it is supposed to help students to read and consume research in a proper way. On the other side the book can also serve the students who start to engage in doing research with the aim of writing a master's or doctoral thesis.
Thomas, J.R. & Nelson, J.K. (1996). Research Methods in Physical Activity (3rd Ed.). Champaign (Ill.): Human Kinetics.
"We believe this book provides the necessary information for both the consumer and the producer of research. Although no amount of knowledge about the tools of research can replace expertise in the content area, it is unlikely that good scholars in the study of physical activity can function apart from the effective use of research tools. Researchers, teachers, technicians, counsellors, and coaches need to understand the research process. If they do not, they are forced to accept information on face value or the recommendation of others. Although neither is necessarily bad, the ability to carefully evaluate and reach a valid conclusion is the mark of a professional" (p. x).
PART I Overview of the Research Process
Chapter 1 Introduction to Research in Physical Activity
Chapter 2 Developing the Problem and Using the Literature
Chapter 3 Presenting the Problem
Chapter 4 Formulating the Method
Chapter 5 Ethical Issues in Research and Scholarship
PART II Statistical and Measurement Concepts in Research
Chapter 6 Becoming Acquainted With Statistical Concepts
Chapter 7 Relationships Among Variables
Chapter 8 Differences Among Groups
Chapter 9 Understanding Multivariate Techniques
Chapter 10 Nonparametric Techniques
Chapter 11 Measuring Research Variables
PART III Types of Research
Chapter 12 Historical Research in Physical Activity
Chapter 13 Philosophic Research in Physical Activity
Chapter 14 Research Synthesis (Meta-Analysis)
Chapter 15 Descriptive Research
Chapter 16 Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research
Chapter 17 Qualitative Research
PART IV Writing the Research Report
Chapter 18 The Research Proposal
Chapter 19 Results and Discussion
Chapter 20 Ways of Reporting Research
This textbook so far is one of the most used books in regard to research methodology for sport science. The book has had several new editions, despite the fact that it is predominantly geared towards empirical research in sport science (physical activity).
Haag, H. (in cooperation with Borms, J., Duquet, W., Ghent, G., Holzweg, M., Kluka, D., Lament-Mills, A., Love, P., Tenenbaum, G., Twisk, J.) (in print). Research Methodology for Sport and Exercise Sciences. A Multi-Method Approach for Study and Research. Sage: London.
With this book a holistic concept of research methodology is presented. Thus this textbook is applicable to study and research for all of the continuum all subdisciplins or theory fields of sport and exercise sciences.
Contents
PART I Philosophy and Foundations of Science and Research
Chapter 1 Concept of Science
Chapter 2 Concept of Research
PART II Research Methods
Chapter 3 Descriptive Methods
Chapter 4 Correlational Methods
Chapter 5 Experimental Methods
PART III Research Designs
Chapter 6 Library Research, the Web and Information Technology
Chapter 7 Planning the Research
PART IV Techniques of Data Collection
Chapter 8 Concepts and Procedures in Collecting Word-Based Data
Chapter 9 Concepts and Procedures in Collecting Number-Based Data
PART V Techniques of Data Analysis
Chapter 10 Non-Numerical Strategies of Data Analysis (Hermeneutics)
Chapter 11 Numerical Strategies of Data Analysis (Statistics)
PART VI Transfer from Research Results (Theory) to Practice
Chapter 12 Theory-Practice and Practice-Theory Relationships
This book on research methodology for sport and exercise science helps to carry out the various processes of gaining scientific knowledge. The multi-method approach offers a wide variety of insights, ideas, and proposals with regard to realising research in the wide range of sport and exercise sciences. Only if the available methods are known, the researcher is able to choose the appropriate research approach for a given research question. This secures that the issue, problem and question at hand is the starting point in the research process.
Below is a brief description on the direction of each section within the book.
I Philosophy and Foundations of Science and Research
An important first part of research methodology is dealing with the concept of science and research. Both structures are discussed and analysed in order to provide a solid theoretical framework for engaging in research. The actual research process gains considerably if it is based and grounded in a thorough theoretical background. Therefore the engagement and work related to this first unit is not in vain or wasted time. On the contrary, it guarantees an adequate realisation of the research process. Furthermore, it seems obvious that in an age of scientific advancement the 'Social-Ethical Perspective of Science' has to be discussed.
II Research Methods
This part introduces the overall concept related to research methods: Descriptive, correlational, and experimental. The Term "method" is reserved in this context for this very basic issue within the research process. Very often one can find rather confusing terminology defining tools such as questionnaire, test, and experiment as a "method". "Method" is conceptualised here in a holistic perspective where theory and methodology merge together. In summary, all three research methods - descriptive, correlational, and experimental - are viewed on the same continuum, ranging from descriptive over correlational to experimental.
III Research Designs
After the predominantly theory-oriented beginning of the publication, the section Research Designs has a more practical focus. This coincides with the intention of this book to provide theoretical frameworks and provide pragmatic orientations for carrying out research.
IV Techniques of Data Collection
The steps introduced within the research process are typical for almost every type of research, especially if the concept of research methodology is based on the multi-method approach.
Textbooks on research methodology, that address the collection of word based-data, often marginally treat the topic. In chapter 8, a systematic and intensive analysis of the issue is provided in such a way that the approach for collecting word-based data is compared to the measuring of number-based data, which is presented in chapter 9.
V Techniques of Data Analysis
In analogy to part IV ('Techniques of Data Collection'), part V ('Techniques of Data Analysis') consists two chapters:

- words: non-numerical strategies of data analysis (hermeneutics), and
- numbers: numerical strategies of data analysis (statistics).

VI Transfer from Research Results (Theory) to Practice
This concluding chapter emphasises the importance of the mutual relations between theory and practice. Research methodology is viewed as a mediator between the two constructs that feed each other so that theories become more comprehensive and practices become sounder.
Comparative Analysis of the Content of Textbooks Related to Research Methodology for Sport Science
A comparative analysis of the content of the six textbooks is presented below. The six major categories of the book edited by Haag (in print) serves as "tertium comparationis".
Table 1 Comparative Analysis of the Content of the Textbooks on Research Methodology

| Hubbard (1973) (3rd) | Clarke & Clarke (1970) | Cicciarella (1997) | Thomas & Nelson (1996) (3rd) | Baumgartner & Strong (1998) (2nd) | Haag (in print)
|  | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2
II Descriptive | 3 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 1
Correlational |  | 1 |  | 1 |  | 1
Experimental | 1 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1
Others |  |  | 1 | 1 | 1 |
III | 2 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 2
IV | 4 |  |  |  |  | 2
V Hermeneutics |  |  |  |  |  | 1
Statistics | 1 | 5 | 4 | 6 | 2 | 1
VI | 2 |  |  |  |  | 1
Number of Chapters | 15 | 18 | 15 | 19 | 12 | 12

This analysis is just a very modest approach to roughly quantify the main topics which are covered in textbooks written for research methodology for sport science. It is obvious, that five textbooks follow about the same concept, besides the one edited by Haag (in print). This latter one is, besides having the typical chapters of books on research methodology, especially characterised by the fact, that it provides separate chapters for the category "Techniques of Data Collection", Hermeneutics as one aspect of "Techniques of Data Analysis" and for category VI "Theory-Practice Relationships". This is also the reason why this concept of research methodology for sport science is a holistic concept, valid for all aspects of sport science.
Herbert Haag
Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel
Olshausenstrasse 74
24098 Kiel
GERMANY
Ph: +49 31 4318803770
sportpaed@email.uni-kiel.de

http://www.icsspe.org/portal/texte/area/bulletin/
Research Methodology for Sport Science
Prof. Dr. h.c. H. Haag, M.S.,
Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel, Germany