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| Feature | No.65 October 2013 |

Fostering Physical Literacy Through Professional Development in USA

Hildi M. Nicksi & Erin E. Centeio

Abstract

Given the state of obesity around the world, school personnel have been called upon to provide additional opportunities for physical activity and to facilitate physical literacy in students. However, physical education teachers and especially classroom teachers may lack the knowledge and competence to deliver activities and employ strategies that foster physically literacy in their pupils. Therefore, effective professional development for both classroom teachers and physical education teachers targeting physical literacy is necessary. This brief paper examines key components of effective professional development, with particular reference to generalist teachers in the Primary School, that could better prepare teachers to promote and foster physical literacy.

Background

The number of overweight or obese children has risen dramatically around the world, such that 6.7% of children under five are overweight with an estimated 9.1% by 2020 (de Onis, Blössner, & Borghi, 2010). In the United States, the overall rate of obese children has plateaued over recent years, but specific populations such as adolescent males still show significant increases (Ogden, Carroll, Kit, & Flegal, 2012). Sedentary behavior (Rey-Lopez, Vicente-Rodriguez, Biosca, & Moreno, 2008) has been cited as a primary cause of obesity, with an increase in screen time (Tremblay et al., 2011) and a lack of resources or access to a conducive environment (Sallis & Glanz, 2006) significantly diminishing child and teen engagement in physical activity. Given that our youth population attends school for upwards of seven hours each day, schools have been identified as an ideal place to promote health by providing students with physical activity opportunities (Institute of Medicine, 2012; Pate et al., 2006). The Centers of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2011) recommend children engage in at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous activity each day. Yet, in the United States, only 3.8% of first through fifth grade students attend daily physical education class, with 7.9% at the middle school level and just 2.1% in high school (Lee, 2007). In addition, a trend toward a decrease in frequency or duration of recess time further limits opportunities for students to be physically active at school (Ridgers et al, 2012).

First Lady Michelle Obama unveiled the Let’s Move! Active Schools initiative in February of 2013, which uses a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program foundation to encourage school personnel to provide students with physical activity opportunities throughout the school day. In May of 2013, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) released a report supporting this movement titled “Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School” that assessed current practices, examined relevant research, and provided recommendations and action steps for helping schools to get students more active. One recommendation from this IOM report was that a “whole-of-school” approach should be adopted and that all school personnel should advocate for an environment that fosters physical activity (Institute of Medicine, 2013). Given the decrease in physical education and recess time and the push to increase activity minutes, the responsibility to offer physical activity opportunities and encourage student engagement must be shared and classroom teachers must be prepared to provide such opportunities. Further, the desired outcome of this activity participation at school is for students to become, not just physically active, but physically literate. The most recent physical education standards in the United States, set for by the National Association for Sport and Physical Activity, present the overarching goal as “to develop physically literate individuals who have the knowledge, skills and confidence to enjoy a lifetime of healthful physical activity” (American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 2013). As such, effective professional development for both physical education teachers and classroom teachers on fostering physical literacy is necessary.

Physical literacy has been described as the “motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge and understanding to maintain physical activity throughout the lifecourse” (Whitehead, 2011). This concept takes the foundation of physical activity and builds upon it such that it becomes a habit. Children who engage in physical activity are more likely to continue this participation as adults (Boreham & Riddoch, 2010). Physical literacy encompasses the skills needed to be physically active, the understanding of why activity is important, and the ability to apply knowledge and create a persistent lifestyle of health and fitness. For teachers, the application referred to above is critical as students need to be capable of transitioning their physical activity in the school to life beyond compulsory education.

Providing lessons and activities that foster physical literacy requires curricular change, which necessitates buy-in from teachers. While there is a dearth of research addressing barriers to implementation of physical activity in the school, in other areas of education change identified failure to recognize the need for change as a primary obstacle (Greenberg & Baron, 2000), suggesting that teachers do not include physical activity in their programmes because they have never considered incorporating movement in their curriculum and are unaware of its impact across many areas of development such as cognition. Other hypothesized barriers include a lack of confidence or competence to present physical activity, a lack of time and/or resources, and concerns about class management and student behaviour. Therefore, it is important that professional development address these concerns and prepare teachers for effective implementation.

Professional development, or continuing education, is formal training for practising teachers that is designed to increase teachers’ knowledge and skills, improve teaching, and facilitate individual growth. Research suggests that quality professional development can be effective in producing change in teachers’ attitudes and behaviors (Castelli, Centeio, & Nicksic, 2013). While limited studies target professional development and student health outcomes, professional development literature in education is well documented. Researchers have proposed that effective professional development should occur across multiple sessions, be interactive and social, and have direct application for participants (Castelli, Centeio, & Nicksic, 2013; Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 1995; Garet et al., 2001). From this literature, four key components of professional development have been identified and applied to physical literacy.

Providing Professional Development for Physical Literacy

Conducting professional development to foster physical literacy should follow the guidelines of effective professional development, as supported by empirical research. The following section briefly discusses four key components that should be addressed within physical literacy professional development: (1) active and engaging, (2) cooperative, (3) content and population specific, and (4) knowledge enhancing.

Active and Engaging

Just as teachers need to make physical education lessons active and engaging for students, professional development trainers should include hands-on, meaningful activities that model effective strategies for fostering physical literacy. Sessions should strive to increase competence and motivate learners to engage in activity on their own. Learning should transcend the training sessions as professional development facilitators provide opportunities for participants to reflect on their own current practice and their progress toward implementation before, during, and after the professional development experience. Having teachers reflect on their own practices and engaging them in thoughts about their own students and personal situations will further engage teachers in the learning process.

Training should include physical activity breaks for teachers throughout the professional development session that are appropriate for teachers to use in their own school settings. During brainstorming or peer debriefing activities, participants may engage in a “walk and talk” strategy instead of sitting. Additionally, facilitators should provide essential questions that encourage teachers to reflect on their own personal physical literacy. Teachers who model physical literacy by embracing in it their own lives may be more successful in influencing their students to become physically literate (Lumpkin, 2008; Moore et al., 1991).

Cooperative

When professional development is both collective and collaborative, such that it includes all teachers working together, it allows teachers to share ideas and problems in a productive environment that serves as a support group and think tank. When professional development facilitators and school administrators encourage a sense of community, it permeates the infrastructure and can positively impact school climate, enabling physical literacy to be a school-wide priority.

To facilitate this cooperative environment, professional development sessions should include peer discussion and review and should foster sustainable partnerships and/or teams. By initiating these relationships during training, discussion of physical literacy can continue outside the allotted professional development time, maybe even leading to a physical literacy Community of Practice among the teachers. Teachers can share successes and failures of implementation and work together to find strategies best suited to their own schools and students. This collaboration should also extend to the teacher-student relationship as students can provide valuable feedback on lessons and activities.

Content and Population Specific

For any learning to be effective, it must be meaningful to the learner. In professional development, training should be targeted to both the subject area and student demographics of the teacher participants so that concepts and strategies in training sessions can be directly applied in the school setting. Sessions should model activities that are contextually appropriate to the age level of the students in the classes of teachers attending the professional development. Information must also pertain to the subject area taught by the participants so that lessons can be implemented in the school setting without any additional planning requirements. This might require those facilitating the training to spend more time developing activities and materials in order to ensure that the concepts being applied within the training are relevant to each individual situation. Trainers should attempt to tailor sessions so that lessons applied in the school setting engage students and motivate them to apply their new knowledge and skills outside of the school.

Specifically, because physical education teachers and classroom teachers have different standards, different environments, and different challenges, professional development sessions should be individualized (Castelli, Centeio, & Nicksic, 2013). If conducting separate training sessions is not possible, facilitators should consider break-out sessions that group teachers by subject area so they can specifically address the needs of physical education teachers and of classroom teachers in learning to present activities that foster physical literacy.

Knowledge-enhancing

Facilitators of professional development should attempt to structure trainings so that teachers leave professional development sessions with new information, materials, and skills. As such, participant knowledge of physical literacy should be assessed at the commencement of professional development and regular feedback from participants must be requested throughout to ensure applicable learning is taking place. Prior to the completion of training, trainers should confirm that teachers understand, and can explain, physical literacy. While the concept of physical literacy is becoming common in Canadian and British standards, the United States physical education standards embracing physical literacy were just released April 27th, 2013. As such, it is imperative that professional development sessions provide teachers with a solid foundation of understanding. Teachers should also be encouraged to value their own health and monitor their personal journey toward physical literacy. Finally, teachers should be provided with a toolkit of discussion items and activities for implementation in the school setting, designed to foster physical literacy in students.

Discussion

Physical activity has been linked to a multitude of social, psychological, and cognitive benefits, including improved academic performance (CDC, 2010). To truly embrace physical activity as a lifestyle choice and become physically literate, students require multiple opportunities to learn about physical literacy and engage in physical activity throughout the school day. For teachers to foster physical literacy in their students, effective professional development must equip them with the proper foundation to offer physical activity in the school setting.

The implications from existing professional development literature suggest that effective training is effective teaching. Quality teachers assess prior knowledge, check for understanding, and individualize instruction (Angelo & Cross, 1993; Hiemstra & Burton, 1990). As such, professional development trainers must be prepared to assess teachers’ prior knowledge of physical literacy, check for understanding of the concept, and individualize activities and information so that it is directly applicable to teachers. Providing effective professional development to foster physical literacy can positively impact lifelong change in both teachers and students.

Physically literate teachers may be healthier, have more energy, and be less susceptible to burn-out (Carson, Baumgartner, Matthew, & Tsouloupas, 2010), could be better models for students (Lumpkin, 2008; Moore et al., 1991), and be more apt to provide opportunities that promote physical literacy in students (McKenzie, LaMaster, Sallis, & Marshall, 1999). Similarly, students who are physically literate are more likely to demonstrate increased attention and concentration and be engaged in lessons, perform better on achievement tests, and have greater attendance than students lacking physical literacy skills (Trost, 2009).

Acknowledgements:

The authors thank Darla Castelli, PhD, who provided leadership and insight that contributed to this manuscript. The intellectual contributions of Aaron Beighle, PhD, and Russell Carson, PhD, in the development of this work are also acknowledged.

References

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Contact

Hildi M. Nicksic
The University of Texas at Austin
1 University Station, mail code D3700
Austin, TX 78712
USA
Email hildi@utexas.edu

http://www.icsspe.org/