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| Feature | No.65 October 2013 |

Content Implications of Working to promote Physical Literacy

Margaret Whitehead

Abstract

This paper locates the issue of curriculum content within the philosophical roots of physical literacy in relation to the importance of interaction with the environment.

It sets out briefly the concept of movement patterns and their development and

argues for the importance of a broad and balanced experience in a range of Movement Forms. Finally the paper suggests an alternative approach to the use of extra-curricular time. In these ways it provides some answers to the question ‘How can we foster the development of physical literacy?

The content of this paper is a re-presentation of material from Chapters 5 and 15 in Whitehead (ed) (2010) and Chapter 4 in Capel and Whitehead (eds) (2013)

The central importance of Interaction in the philosophical Foundation of Physical Literacy

The first paper in this Bulletin explains the history of the development of the concept and the way in which existentialism can be seen to provide a sound justification for nurturing the motile potential afforded by our embodied dimension. It was suggested that we create ourselves through interaction with the environment. Without this interaction there would be no development and indeed no human life as we know it. It was suggested that any human dimension that afforded individuals the opportunity to interact with the world was of undisputed significance. The embodied dimension, being one medium of interaction is, therefore, worthy of serious attention and development.

The corollary of this is that fostering physical competence is of value and the more so if this competence can open the door to a rich variety of interactions.

Movement patterns as the Building Blocks of Physical Competence

As is detailed in Whitehead (2010 Ch15) movement patterns are suggested as the building blocks for the development of physical competence within the physical literacy capability. These movement patterns are referred to as general, refined and specific. An example of a general pattern would be sending. Sending is refined into types of sending such as throwing and bowling, and these refined patterns become specific when honed for use in a particular physical pursuit such as throwing the javelin, bowling in cricket or shooting in basket ball. The key to progressing from general to refined and specific patterns is the ability to apply movement capacities such as balance, co-ordination, dexterity and hand-eye co-ordination. (See Whitehead 2010 Chapter 15 for a full discussion of this topic)

The ability to use movement patterns is essential to effective and rewarding participation in physical activities. Patterns are, therefore, not ends in themselves but means to enable movers to engage in the wide variety of physical pursuits available in a culture. In fact there is a reciprocal developmental relationship between patterns and pursuits. The ability to use a cluster of patterns facilitates effective participation in activities and within that participation the patterns themselves will become more firmly established and more readily applied in subtly different ways to respond to ever changing challenges.

It follows from this short explanation that the wider the variety of contexts in which movement patterns are applied, the richer and more robust will be the individual’s bank of patterns. It is thought provoking to consider the very many different movement contexts available, and to reflect on the myriad if ways in which movement patterns are called on.

There is a direct link here to the existential principles outlined above in that experiences of interacting with the environment will enable participants to appreciate an aspect of their potential and gain real satisfaction in this close relationship with the world.

Movement Forms

As set out above, movement patterns are the building blocks of effective participation in physical pursuits and thus provide the foundation of physical competence in physical literacy. To realise physical potential and develop and challenge these movement patterns learners need to have experience in a wide range of physical pursuits. There is no doubt that there are far too many pursuits for all to be included in the school curriculum. It is, therefore, necessary to look carefully at the range of activities that might be addressed (as appropriate to a country or culture) and to categorise these so that an effective sampling can take place in school.

Over the years a number of categorisations have been proposed in UK, both in successive National Curricula and as designed by Institutes of Higher Education running Physical Education Teacher Education. Building from these models, Murdoch and Whitehead (in Whitehead 2010 Chapter 15) proposed six Movement Forms. These are: Adventure; Aesthetic and Expressive; Athletic; Competitive; Fitness and Health and Interactional/Relational. Each Form has a unique ‘essence’ and takes place in a different situation in respect of both the physical environment and the relationships with others. Each Form makes particular demands on the embodied dimension in drawing from particular clusters of movement patterns. The characteristic nature or ‘essence’ of activities within each of the six Movement Forms can be described as follows:-

- Activities in the Adventure Form have a main focus on meeting risk and managing challenge within natural and often unpredictable environments.

- Activities in the Aesthetic and Expressive Form have a main focus on the embodied dimension being used as an expressive instrument within a creative, aesthetic or artistic context.

- Activities in the Athletic Form demand a main focus on the performer reaching personal maximum/optimal power, distance, speed and accuracy within a competitive and controlled environment.

- Activities in the Competitive Form have a main focus on the achievement of predetermined goals through the outwitting of opponents while managing of a variety of implements and objects in a challenging and changing contexts.

- Activities in the Fitness and Health Form have a main focus on gradually improving the function of the body both qualitatively and quantitatively through regular, repetitive participation.

- Activities in the Interactional/Relational form are characterised by a main focus on recognition, and appreciation of empathy between people and groups as they move together in a social context.

What is important is that learners have experience of activities that together exemplify ALL Movement Forms. This will ensure a comprehensive coverage of a range of movement patterns and challenges in a wide variety of situations and environments. This breadth of experience is desirable in giving individuals every opportunity to realise their potential. Each individual will find satisfaction and success within some Movement Forms rather than in others, as the essence of one Form may hold greater appeal in relation to the personal characteristics and aspirations of that individual. Examples of activities that could be seen to fall under each Form are suggested in Table 1.

Table 1 Examples of physical pursuits/activities that exemplify the characteristics in each Movement Form.

It is the case that some activities could well be seen as examples in a number of Movement Forms. However in ascribing an activity to a Form, the teaching must reflect the characteristics of that Movement Form. For example swimming could be taught in contexts in which it could be seen as falling within the Adventure Movement Form or the Competitive Form, and Gymnastics could be so presented that it represented an example of the Competitive Movement Form or the Interactional/Relational Form.

It is the case that in many national curricula a series of activities are suggested or mandatory. However a wide range of types of activity are seldom taught in school physical education and even where they are included, the time allocation given to each can differ significantly.

To accommodate the need for a wide range of activities to be covered in the interests of fostering physical literacy, it is recommended that an equal amount of time is given to each Movement Form and this should be the rationale for the design of a curriculum.

As set out in Table 2 a possible design is to select three Movement Forms to be covered in any year. Within this arrangement no more than two activity examples from each Movement Form would be covered during each year. If there were two periods of physical education a week, this would give the equivalent of a terms’ work (i.e. one period a week) in each of the three Movement Forms each year. Activities from within each Form would have to be selected carefully. In Year 7 learners might have a period a week for two terms of gymnastics, a period a week for one term on each of creative dance, synchronised swimming, hockey and tennis.

Table 2 An example of coverage of all Movement Forms in Years 7 – 11

Time allocation will always be an issue, as will staffing and facilities. However it is suggested that if the time was used on fewer activities, learners would experience more progress, enjoyment and satisfaction. The pleasure of being active, and thus the motivation to take part, is very significantly rooted in successful performance of an activity. Learners leave lessons confidently reflecting – “I can do it! I am good at this!” Brief coverage of a large number of activities, whatever these activities might be, has, it is believed, been responsible for a lessening of motivation and confidence, as well as little development of physical competence. There are certainly a good many in the profession who identify that the problem with some current curricular programmes is associated with learners working on a very wide range of activities and never having the time to develop the necessary appreciation of an activity, the specific movement patterns required and an understanding of how these patterns are employed in a particular context. Teachers should appreciate the value of experience sustained over a longer period of time and the real achievement in physical competence that this can foster. More time devoted to fewer activities will undoubtedly present a challenge to practitioners, demanding resourceful and imaginative teaching. However there are real benefits to be accrued, significantly in promoting the confidence that comes from successful participation.

Experience in a wide range of Movement Forms not only promotes establishment of movement patterns and thus physical competence, it has the potential to foster the attributes associated with making progress on a physical literacy journey - as set out in the second paper in this Bulletin. For example learners will:-

- experience success and progress and thus acquire motivation

- develop of a range of specific movement patterns and their constituent movement capacities, thereby enhancing movement competence and confidence

- have experience of a range of environments in which to develop effective interaction

- have experience of working alongside others in different ways to nurture understanding and empathy

- have experience of using initiative and imagination in interacting with unpredictable environments, thereby encouraging self confidence and independence

- have experience of using movement as an expressive medium

- have first hand experience of coming to appreciate embodied health

Some involvement in all Movement Forms will extend the participant’s experience and provide learners with a rich repertoire from which they can select activities beyond the school. In addition this wide experience will provide a resource of options for individual so that needs and interests can be met throughout the lifecourse. Should individuals want to test themselves out against others, should they wish to be part of a group or should they wish to be involved in artistic and creative activity they will have had experiences that will inform their choice of activity.

A Re-Assessment of the Role of extra-curricular Activities

The corollary of the suggestions made in the section above is that learners would have experience of only a small sample of physical activities. There will be a good many activities that learners will not have experienced. To counteract this limitation, it is suggested that practitioners in school look again at the extra-curricular provision. An ideal scenario would be one in which all learners are catered for and welcomed in the time outside the curriculum. The outcome in England would mean that this time would cease to be seen as solely the territory of the most gifted, as is the case in many schools.

The time could be so organised that there are at least three clear purposes for, or motivations, to take part in activity after school. Learners could take part in order to:-

- widen their experience of activities beyond those in the timetabled curriculum

- work further on movement patterns and/or activities introduced in curriculum time which they are finding demanding. This might be to have more time to practice hand-eye co-ordination or perhaps to develop strength and balance

- challenge themselves to apply movement patterns in more demanding situations, often involving competition.

This change would only be possible if there was a clear:-

- change in the perception of extra-curricular work by participants and practitioners alike, one that encourages all learners to be motivated to take part

- relationship between curriculum work and extra-curricular activities, both in respect of learner aspirations and in relation to enhancing experience beyond what is covered in curriculum time

- dialogue between practitioners leading work inside and outside the curriculum

A re-presentation of the focus of extra-curricular time would open the door to participation by all, with the goal of every learner taking part after school at least twice a week.

In fact this does happen in some schools in England – showing that it not an impossible goal. It is certainly a highly desirable goal and one that would be of great benefit to many young people.

At the heart of a programme of this nature are teaching approaches that are genuinely learner centred. All learners are catered for, whatever their level of expertise, and there is no sense that the practitioner is teaching the activity rather than the learners. Planning and teaching are designed in relation to the needs of the learners rather than strictly adhering to the technical requirements of the activity.

A programme of this nature could be attractive to all. Extra-curricular activities would no longer be seen as designed specifically for competitive team sport for the most talented. The activities would be open to all. Learners from different year groups would work together. It is understood that this proposal creates challenges concerning staffing, facilities and transport. However the effects of such a programme would be far reaching and undoubtedly beneficial in fostering physical literacy.

Conclusion

The selection of content is significant both from a philosophical perspective and for the effective development of physical competence. In addition width of experience will foster the development of the attributes of physical literacy and furnish the individual with experiences that can inform lifestyle choices.

References

1. Capel, S. & Whitehead, M. (eds) (2013) Debates in Physical Education. London, Routledge.

2. Whitehead, M. (ed) (2010) Physical Literacy: Throughout the lifecourse. London, Routledge.

Contact

Margaret Whitehead
4 Veranzerou Str. 10677
Athens
Greece
E-mail: whitehead67@aol.com

http://www.icsspe.org/