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| Feature | No.62 October 2011 |

Athletic Administrator Perspectives Hindering Transgender Inclusion in U. S. Collegiate Sports: A Queer-Feminist Analysis
Li Brookens
Introduction
When examining sex-segregated sports associated with educational institutions in the United States, athletic administrators (AA) have a challenging responsibility to enact policies and practices that promote equal opportunity for all people (Griffin & Carroll, 2010). In this paper, select findings are reported from a study designed to elucidate how AA`s in positions of power include transgender student-athletes (TSA). In the study a queer-feminist theory for analysis is used, which serves to deconstruct political and legal barriers that prevent marginalised populations (i.e. - TSA`s) from having the same rights and resources from those in power (i.e.- AA`s) (Sykes, 1998). Additionally, “transgender” is defined as someone who expresses a wide range of identities, appearances, and/or behaviours that fall outside of stereotypical gender norms of either male or female (Gender Spectrum, 2010, p. 2).
In September 2011, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) adopted a transgender inclusion policy for post-season competition that has been cited before in this publication. This policy is a major step forward for inclusive practice, yet its impact and effectiveness may be limited as many individual institutions in the NCAA maintain the power to keep transgender athletes from participating in regular season competition if they so choose. While this study was conducted prior to the NCAA announcing their transgender inclusion policy, relevant findings document important AA perspectives that hinder inclusion among individual institutions.
Literature Review
Transgender Identities, a Growing Phenomenon
Gender identity is a social construction that all people develop and represents “one`s concept of self as male or female or both or neither…[that is] same or different than the gender assigned at birth” (Griffin & Carroll, 2010, p. 47). A growing number of people are identifying outside the gender binary, and policies are needed to protect and include their participation in schools and activities aimed at development and growth (Griffin & Carroll, 2010).
It remains difficult to estimate the number of people whose gender identity is different from their gender assigned at birth (Olyslager & Conway, 2008; Reed, Rhodes, Schofield, & Wylie, 2009). The American Psychiatric Association, which is frequently referenced in U.S. media, currently utilises data generated in the 1960`s suggesting that 1:30,000 adult males and 1:100,000 adult females seek genital reassignment surgery (American Psychiatric Association [DSM-IV-TR], 2000). This may leave the reader with an impression that transgender identities are obsolete. Using this rationalisation makes it easier to render transgender identities invisible within policy-making.
However, a recent study critiques authors of the DSM-IV-TR for severely underreporting these numbers, using outdated information, and failing to account for a vast majority of people who may identify as transgender and/or transsexual and do not elect for medical alteration because of choice, safety, income barriers, and/or many other reasons (Olyslager & Conway, 2008). For the purposes of this article, Olyslager and Conway (2008) estimate 1:250 people today transgress gender norms.
Reed et al. (2009) have studied gender variance and its prevalence and growth in the United Kingdom, and concluded that incidence of gender variance (in adult and youth populations) is growing at a rate of “15% per annum; hence the number is doubling every five years” (p. 4). Additionally, Reed et al. (2009) utilise transgender as “a broader term that includes all those who experience some degree of gender variance which, in most cases, requires no medical intervention” (p. 6). “We must raise questions about why the psychiatric establishment (which has largely seized control of information provided about transsexualism to the media in the U.S.) has been so persistent in promulgating vastly understated values of the prevalence” (Olyslager & Conway, 2008, para. 4). With the power the American Psychiatric Association holds in their DSM-IV-TR publication, vastly underreporting the occurrence of transsexualism helps to maintain the assumption most people have in our society—that gender identity needs to be congruent with the gender one is assigned to at birth. In this light, it is no mystery why the majority of athletic programmes in our nation`s schools have no policy to govern the inclusion of TSA`s (Griffin & Carroll, 2010); they are a highly invisible population.
Educational Values Leveraging the Transgender Student-Athlete
Educational values need to be considered in policy-making, which means AA`s must both adopt policies that provide opportunities for all students and policies that maintain the perception of a “level playing field” for all participants (Buzuvis, 2011; Griffin & Carroll, 2010). Factors that play into policy-making in this realm include the educational value of sport, medical science, and laws governing the school`s jurisdiction (Buzuvis, 2011). For starters, it means adopting non-discrimination policies that include gender identity and expression. Secondly, including TSA on sports teams means adopting specific policies addressing student-athletes who may transition to the opposite gender (for example FtM or MtF student-athletes), transsexual identities.
Buzuvis (2011), a law professor at Western New England College School of Law, writes about TSA policy using three key factors AA`s must take into account—education, medical science, and law. Buzuvis (2011) argues that while medical and legal factors contribute to policy development for TSA, they both miss the point of “the educational purpose” behind interscholastic athletics (p. 29). Moreover, as an increasing number of schools are adding gender identity and expression to non-discrimination policies, Buzuvis (2011) argues that there is judicial momentum for TSA`s who may choose to cite non-discrimination policy, which covers gender identity and expression, in order to get access to playing on the sports team congruent with their bona fide gender identity. In making these points, Buzuvis (2011) is urging her readers to consider a proactive approach to adopting TSA policy.
A Queer-Feminist Look at Transgender Student-Athletes
From a Queer-Feminist perspective, this paper explores issues of power and control in athletics to examine the extent of access and equality for transgender athletes. For instance, Travers (2008) writes about a network of highly powerful and visible institutions (such as the NCAA) that have a monopoly on the institution of sport in maintaining certain discourses that define sports norms. The discourse in the case of this paper is related to gender injustice because the discourse reinforces the societal expectation that people should align their gender identity and/or expression with either their male or female birth assignment. As a consequence of this, there is no safe place for the TSA to play. The practice of gender injustice contributes to transphobia by promoting binary ideology in policy and structure (Travers, 2008; Gender Spectrum, 2010, p. 2). Now that the NCAA has adopted a national policy for transgender inclusion, it is time for individual membership institutions to get on board and proactively adopt similar policy and practice as well.
Methods
Due to the limited scope of this article, only select qualitative results are discussed. A mixed methods design was used through use of an anonymous web-based survey. Two-part question sequences (multiple choice questions followed by narrative questions) were used to elicit expanded responses from AA`s in textboxes throughout the survey. The participant sample (N=511) was chosen based on their expertise and professional power within the field of collegiate sports. I created an exhaustive list of top AA`s (i.e.- Athletic Directors, and Senior Administrators) in NCAA membership institutions who have the authority to implement, change, or create policy.
The qualitative data were coded into themes from textbox responses. A queer-feminist theory content analysis was used to assess textbox responses. This means examining levels of inclusivity and determining how transphobia (fear or hatred of transgender individuals) may be “expressed, justified, or rendered invisible” by AA`s (Gender Spectrum, 2010, p. 2; Lyons & Coyle, 2007, p. 104).
Results and Discussion
Educating Athletic Administrators
The qualitative data were designed to elicit AA`s thoughts and feelings regarding TSA policies and inclusion. One question sequence depicts AA`s thoughts and feelings by first asking, “Would you like to see the NCAA adopt a national policy that includes transgender student-athletes?” A total of 334 participants answered the question (Yes, No, or Not sure), and 26.3% reported they were Not sure. Of participants responding Not sure (n=88), 53 responded to the follow-up textbox prompt: “Please expand on why you are not sure you would like to see the NCAA adopt a national policy that includes transgender student-athletes.” The qualitative data were coded into five distinctive themes after omitting three outliers (final N=50) (“Need to know more,” “states rights vs federal rights issue,” “isolated issue,” “level playing field,” or “guidelines rather than policies”)(See Figure 1).
The largest percentage of responses was categorised into the “Need to know more” theme (32.0%). AA`s who had responses placed in this theme described concerns that they did not have enough information to express an opinion regarding transgender inclusion: “I really am not educated on the issues and I would hesitate on advocating an association wide policy before knowing the specifics of transgender issues.” While this finding does not address willingness to be educated on transgender issues in sport, this result could have socio-political value to transgender researchers, advocates and educators in assessing and implementing programming that addresses transgender identities in sport.
Administrator Perspectives Hindering Inclusion
Perspectives hindering inclusion of TSA`s were discovered through examination of the second, third, and fourth largest themes for the national policy question sequence. Together, responses categorised in these themes account for 56% of responses (N=50): “states rights vs federal rights issue,” “isolated issue,” and “equal playing field.” The themes were surmised to represent AA perspectives that hinder transgender inclusion, which is expanded on in the following paragraphs.
For “states rights vs federal rights” (28.0% of N) it is inferred that AA`s are describing a preference for keeping the power to implement policy at the institutional level instead of nationally: “Might better be served as a campus policy rather than NCAA mandate.” In the third theme, “isolated issue” (14.0% of N) it is inferred that AA`s are making reference to a common political position that is used to resist and/or deny benefits to “special interest groups” that may seek legal and social equalities. An example of an AA using this rationale includes, “It seems to be a rather isolated issue from what I`ve heard or seen that to make it NCAA wide at this point is not purposeful.”
Inherently, in statements like “states rights vs federal rights issue” and “isolated issue,” the justification involves a powerful or dominant viewpoint (AA`s) against less powerful or non-dominant identities (TSA`s). AA`s who make this argument, in other words, are sending a message to TSA`s that they need to conform to a dominant perspective; gender identity and expression diversity are not honoured.
Continuing to rely on individual institutions to regulate trans-inclusion is problematic for sports associated within the U.S. educational system. The effect can be detrimental to individuals and team cohesion, leaving TSA`s invisible and vulnerable to discrimination at competitor institutions that may not have the same transgender inclusion policy. According to the NCAA, sports are closely tied to education and the membership organisations strive to adhere to core values:

> "[The NCAA]…shares a belief in and commitment to: [1] The supporting role that intercollegiate athletics plays in the higher education mission…and [2] An inclusive culture that fosters equitable participation for student-athletes and career opportunities for coaches and administrators from diverse backgrounds." (NCAA, 2011a)

Using “states rights vs federal rights” and “isolated issue” rationalisations will work to maintain a status quo that limits and excludes TSA`s from accessing the benefits collegiate sports has to offer all student-athletes.
In the fourth theme, “equal playing field” (14.0% of N), AA`s imparted concern that other Athletic Programmes who have TSA`s may have unfair advantages: “Could someone use this policy for their own good & not the good of all Transgender Student-Athletes. This is an extremely emotional situation for all involved.” It appears that AA`s expressing this concern perceive the TSA as altering the “level playing field” that is highly valued within sex-segregated sports. The literature reviewed addresses TSA inclusion by advocating for policy adoption that honours medical science among other factors (i.e.- educational values and laws) to ensure a level playing field is maintained (Buzuvis, 2011; Griffin & Carroll, 2010). At the same time, medical and scientific research is lagging to legitimise the reality of the AA`s documented concern. AA`s in the NCAA may value more research using medical and scientific methods showing the “level playing field” is not significantly disrupted by the TSA.
N=50
Figure 1. Why administrators are not sure they want an NCAA policy
Transgender Student-Athletes and Ad Hoc Policy-Making
An original finding in this research documents AA`s perceptions of transgender-inclusive policy-making in an ad hoc fashion. The qualitative results (N=226) for the textbox question, “To the best of your opinion, how would you (or do you) describe your Athletic Programme`s overall attitude toward transgender student-athletes participating in your programme” document an ad-hoc policy-making rationale 30.5% of the time (N=69)(See Figure 2). Even in the case of AA`s reporting inclusivity within their athletic programme, there are implications to using ad hoc rationale similar to, “this is not a topic that we have widely discussed, but we are a welcoming community that advocates inclusion. I would hope everyone would accept a trans athlete for whoever he or she is.” The implication remains that AA`s are denying an existence of the TSA that could already be playing in their athletic programme as well as prospective, qualified TSA`s that seek to play collegiate sports.
Many AA`s expressed they were waiting until a TSA came out in their programme before adopting a policy:

> "As this situation is currently being managed at another institution with which we are extremely familiar, I would say that this administration is hopeful that it`s a situation with which they will not have to address. However, if the need arises, they would move forward with what is in the best interests of the student."

The idea of ad hoc policy-making is discouraged among experts in the field of LGBT issues in sports. Buzuvis (2011) as well as Griffin and Carroll (2010) have explicitly encouraged schools to take a proactive approach to policy-making, and not impede access to the benefits sports has to offer to transgender identities. It is possible that athletic programmes that adopt policy that is transgender-inclusive may be preventing discrimination by the presence of the policy alone. This study shows eight AA`s who report having a specific athletic programme non-discrimination policy that is inclusive of gender identity/expression. Of those reporting a policy, none reported instances of gender identity/expression discrimination in their athletic programme when compared to schools that do not have this same policy. Schools that do not have this policy (N=133) reported gender identity/expression discrimination 7.5% of the time.
N=69
Figure 2: Administrators citing ad hoc rationalisation by athletic programme overall inclusiveness
Conclusion
No matter how people align with this topic personally, U.S. educational and NCAA core values pertaining to social justice and inclusion for all people need to be continually strived for in the context of NCAA sporting institutions. With the advent of the NCAA transgender inclusion policy, my hope is that individual schools will jump on board to adopt similar policies for their respective programmes. Transgender identities are not new to society, and research has shown growth among people who identify outside of gender binaries (Olyslager & Conway, 2008; Reed et al., 2009), but they remain invisible to most dominant perspectives among sporting institutions. A non-discrimination policy is a good place to start. While creating policy does not eradicate transphobia, it may be the first step to decreasing the invisibility of transgender student-athletes and creating a larger space in athletics for various gender presentations that do not exist on a binary.
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (Revised 4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Buzuvis, E. (2011). Transgender student-athletes and sex-segregated sport: Developing policies of inclusion for intercollegiate and interscholastic athletics. Seton Hall Journal of Sports Entertainment and Law, 21(1). 1-59.
Gender Spectrum (2010). A word about words. Retrieved from http://www.genderspectrum.org/images/stories/Resources/Family/A_Word_About_Words.pdf
Griffin, P., & Carroll, H. (2010, October 4). On the team: Equal opportunity for transgender student athletes. Retrieved June 21, 2011 from http://www.nclrights.org/site/DocServer/TransgenderStudentAthleteReport.pdf?docID=7901
Lyons, E. & Coyle, A. (2007). Analysing Qualitative Data in Psychology. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications.
National Collegiate Athletic Association (2011a). Core Values. Retrieved from http://www.ncaa.org/wps/wcm/connect/public/ncaa/about+the+ncaa/who+we+are/core+values+landing+page
National Collegiate Athletic Association (2011b). NCAA Inclusion of transgender student-athletes. Retrieved from http://www.ncaa.org/wps/wcm/connect/fd9a78804841ff93953f9fbf5e8bc9cc/Transgender _Handbook_2011_Final.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=fd9a78804841ff93953f9fbf5 e8bc9cc
National Collegiate Athletic Association (2011c). Who We Are. Retrieved from http://www.ncaa.org/wps/wcm/connect/public/ncaa/about+the+ncaa/who+we+are+landing+page
Olyslager, F. & Conway, L. (2008). On the calculation of the prevalence of transsexualism. International Journal of Transgenderism, 10(3). Retrieved June 21, 2011 from http://ai.eecs.umich.edu/people/conway/TS/TSprevalence.html#Article
Out For Justice. (2011, September 12). Re: NCLR applauds new NCAA inclusion policy benefitting transgender student athletes [Web log message]. Retrieved from http://nclrights.wordpress.com/2011/09/12/nclr-applauds-new-ncaa-inclusion-policy-benefitting-transgender-student-athletes/
Reed, B., Rhodes, S., Schofield, P., & Wylie, K. (2009). Gender variance in the UK: Prevalence, incidence, growth and geographic distribution. Retrieved June 21, 2011 from http://www.gires.org.uk/assets/Medpro-Assets/GenderVarianceUK-report.pdf
Contact
Li Brookens
Smith College School of Social Work graduate
Massachusetts, USA
Email: lisabrookens@gmail.com

http://www.icsspe.org/