No.44 May 2005 |
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Background:
This document represents the summary findings of
an international research project financially supported by the International
Olympic Committee and carried out on behalf of the International
Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE/CIEPSS)
and the International Committee of Sport Pedagogy, a
working group of ICSSPE/CIEPSS.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1 - INTRODUCTION
The World Summit on Physical Education, held in Berlin in November 1999,
called attention to the serious decline in the state and status of physical
education and school sport (PESS), all over the world. The Summit reported
the findings of a world-wide survey, which presented evidence, from countries
in all parts of the world, that the time and resources allocated to PESS
had in almost all cases been seriously reduced; and it was argued that
urgent action is required, both to improve the quality of PESS, and to
secure its place in school curriculum time.
The present report summarises some of the findings of an international
research project, funded by the International Olympic Committee, which
offers a response to some of the problems confronting PESS. It has drawn
together evidence from around the world on the benefits of PESS, and by
seeking to identify a shared framework for understanding the subject and
its contributions to educational systems and to children. In doing so,
this project offers empirical support to Article 10 of the UNESCO Charter
of Physical Education and Sport, which called for international co-operation
in supporting and promoting:
the universal and well-balanced promotion
of Physical Education (with a full range of organisations giving) Physical
Education .. greater prominence in international bilateral and multi-lateral
co-operation .. (indicating that such collaboration will) encourage the
development of Physical Education .. throughout the world.
2 - THE SPORT IN EDUCATION PROJECT (SpinEd)
The SpinEd project’s aim was to gather and present evidence to
policymakers regarding the benefits to schools of good quality PESS. Its
main objectives were: to construct a framework for evaluating the role
of PESS, which can be adapted for use in different countries and cultures;
to produce a research summary and annotated bibliography on the role of
PESS; to collect examples of good practice, giving evidence of how PESS
can make positive contributions to school life; to collect data regarding
pupils’ perceptions of the outcomes of PESS.
To realise these objectives, the project team drew on as wide a range
of information as possible, including the voices of children and young
people. It used a number of methods to gather data, which are summarised
in the diagram below:
![]() 3 - TOWARDS A SHARED FRAMEWORK
A central theme within the SpinEd project is the importance of articulating
a shared framework of understanding about the outcomes and benefits of
PESS, that would be valid across cultures and political systems. The first
stage was to find a working definition of PESS that was agreeable to the
widest range of educational systems. This was achieved through a process
of offering various definitions (drawn from published literature), and
inviting feedback from the large team of respondents from around the world.
Eventually, the following ‘functional’ definition of PESS
was found to be acceptable to all questioned:
Physical education and school sport refers
to structured, supervised physical activities that take place at school
and during the school day.
Of course, a definition like this does not capture the full educational
intent of any system’s PESS curriculum. However, it is worth noting
that whilst there was great variation between different systems’
aims, justifications and foci, there was a surprising degree of consensus
regarding the broad types of activities undertaken and the abilities developed
in the name of PESS.
Next, it was necessary to develop a framework with which to structure
the discussion of outcomes and benefits of PESS. The Steering Group, made
up of very experienced and highly respected PESS scholars and teachers
provided an initial list of themes, and these were subsequently tested
by the project team. Testing consisted of evaluating the themes’
compatibility with curricula, textbooks and previously published frameworks
from around the world, reviewing research literature related to teachers’
and students’ views of the outcomes of PESS, and asking the international
team of respondents to assess the extent to which the framework accurately
reflected their system’s PESS programme. The intention of this part
of the project was to find a list of themes related to the outcomes of
PESS that struck a balance between parsimony (the list should be simple
and economical) and inclusion (it should acceptable to every educational
system).
Eventually, a list of five main themes (or domains) was established,
which referred to specific aspects of children’s and young people’s
development:
![]() Each of these themes can be related to various sub-themes (or dimensions),
which were more likely to reflect different educational systems’
values and priorities (for example, social development might be primarily
understand in terms of national civic pride in one context, and co-operation
and teamwork in another. Taking the most researched dimensions within
the domains, a tentative framework emerged. This framework is provisional,
and permanently so, as it is hoped that information and feedback with
continue to be submitted. 4 - INTERNATIONAL LITERATURE REVIEW
Using the SpinEd framework as an organising structure,
the project team carried out an extensive review of the international
literature related to outcomes of sport in education, and associated fields,
such as public health, medicine and exercise science. The findings of
this review are summarised below (A longer and fully annotated version
of this section is available at the SpinEd website: http://spined.cant.ac.uk).
4.1 Physical development
PESS is the main institution for the development
of physical skills and the provision of physical activity in children.
For many, school is the main environment for being physically activity.
Also, there is evidence that for a growing number of children, school
provides the main opportunity for regular, structured sport and physical
activity.
The health benefits of regular physical activity are well-established.
Regular participation in such activities is associated with a longer and
better quality of life and reduced risk of a variety of diseases. Evidence
is starting to appear suggesting a favourable relationship between physical
activity and a host of factors affecting children’s physical health,
including diabetes, blood pressure, bone health and obesity.
Basic movement skills, that are the core elements
of most PESS programmes, form the foundation of almost all later sporting
and physical activities. There is evidence that those who have a strong
foundation in fundamental movement skills are more likely to be active,
both during childhood and later in life. There is also a theory that the
development of a broad range of these basic movement skills is a necessary
condition for elite sport. Conversely, children who have not
been able to acquire adequate movement competences are more likely to
be excluded from participation in organised sports and play with their
friends. As one of the most highly valued aspects of many children’s
and young people’s lives, such exclusion from sports participation
is likely to have far-reaching and harmful consequences to the development
and education of many children.
4.2 Lifestyle development
PESS – one of the few opportunities to promote
physical activities amongst all children – has been proposed
as a cost-effective way to influence the next generation of adults to
lead physically active lives. Research suggests that a number of factors
contribute to the establishment of physical activity as part of a healthy
lifestyle. There is some evidence that health-related behaviours learned
in childhood are often maintained into adulthood, and a review of retrospective
and longitudinal studies found that physical activity in childhood represents
a significant predictor of later activity. Interestingly, studies also
show how strongly inactivity in youth tracks to adulthood, so physical
inactivity during the school years can leave a legacy of inactivity and
associated ill-health in the years to come.
Studies have found that school-based programmes are particularly effective
at promoting physical activity, both during youth and later in life. The
potency of school’s influence seems to be greatest when programmes
combine classroom study with activity, when they allow students experiences
of self-determination and feelings of competence in their own abilities,
and when they emphasised enjoyment and positive experiences in sport and
activity. 4.3 Affective development
There is now fairly consistent evidence that regular activity can have
a positive effect upon the psychological well-being of children and young
people, although the underlying mechanisms for explaining these effects
are still unclear. The evidence is particularly strong with regards to
children’s self-esteem. Other associations with regular activity
that have been reported include reduced stress, anxiety, and depression.
It is also worth considering the growing interest in the relationship between sport and attitudes towards school. A number of studies report positive outcomes in terms of pupil attendance following the introduction of sports-based schemes, and there is evidence from studies of pupils at risk of exclusion from school that an increase in the availability of sporting activities would make the school experience more attractive. Of course, it ought to be acknowledged that not
all pupils enjoy such activities, at least when presented in certain ways.
For example, many girls acquire a progressive disillusionment with sport
at school and totally disengage from participation as they move through
secondary schooling. So, it would be misleading to suggest that sport
will necessarily contribute towards positive attitudes to school
in all pupils, as inappropriate provision might actually increase disaffection
and truancy. More positively, though, there is a great deal of research
showing that when sporting activities are presented in attractive and
relevant ways to all types of students can enjoy participation.
4.4 Social development
The idea that participation in PESS positively affects
children’s social development has a long history. The PESS is considered
an appealing context because it offers naturally occurring social interactions.
The research literature in this area is equivocal. It does not seem to
be the case that prosocial behaviour necessarily improves as a result
of playing sport. However, numerous studies have demonstrated that appropriately
structured and presented activities can make a significant contribution
to the development of prosocial behaviour, and can even combat anti-social
and criminal behaviours in youth.
Again, the most encouraging findings come from school-based studies, especially
those focusing on PESS programmes. Studies have found generally positive
results, including improvements in moral reasoning, fair play and sportspersonship
and personal responsibility.
Of related concern is the issue of social inclusion and exclusion. Combating
social exclusion has become a focus of attention and concern in recent
years. Positive sporting experiences do seem to have the potential to
contribute to the process of inclusion by: bringing individuals from a
variety of social and economic background together in a shared interest
in sporting activities; offering a sense of belonging to a team or a club;
providing opportunities for the development of valued capabilities and
competencies; and developing social networks, community cohesion and civic
pride. 4.5 Cognitive development
Researchers have suggested that physical activity at school can enhance
academic performance by increasing the flow of blood to the brain, enhancing
mood, increasing mental alertness and improving self-esteem. The evidence
for such claims is varied and more research is still required. However,
existing studies do suggest a positive relationship between intellectual
functioning and regular physical activity.
In a well-known French study from the 1950s, researchers reduced ‘academic’
curriculum time by 26%, replacing it with physical activities, yet academic
results did not worsen, there were fewer discipline problems, greater
attentiveness and less absenteeism. More recent studies have found improvements
for many children in academic performance when time for PESS is increased.
The available evidence suggests that increased time for PESS does not
interfere with pupils’ achievement in other subjects (although the
time available for these subjects in consequently reduced), and in many
instances it is associated with improved academic performance, improved
attitudes to school and behaviour.
5 - CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S VIEWS OF PESS A major part of the project was to collect data regarding
children’s feelings and views of the outcomes of PESS. A summary
of the findings is presented below (Only certain measures are reported
here. For a fuller presentation, please go to http:spined.cant.ac.uk).
5.1 Feelings towards PESS ![]() Children were asked about their general feelings
towards PESS and these results are presented above. A total of 86% of
children and young people had positive feelings towards the subject. Younger
children were most likely to say that they loved PESS, whilst
older children were most likely to say that they liked it. Boys
were more likely to claim to love PESS, whilst girls were more
inclined to say that they liked it. Overall, there was an extremely
positive response from all groups regarding their feelings towards PESS.
5.2 Views of Outcome
Children were asked about the outcomes of PESS. The greatest number of
students agreed that PESS keeps them fit and healthy (92%). A very high
proportion of students also agreed that PESS helped them to prepare for
sports competitions (83%) and that PESS helped them to carry on being
physically active (76%). Other statements with which the majority of students
agreed included:
The positive results indicate that the vast majority
of pupils enjoy and value PESS. It was especially interesting to find
that despite living in a different country and attending different schools
with different curricula, there was a great deal of agreement between
the students in the various countries: PESS is a distinctive, valued
and popular subject for the great majority of students questioned.
![]() 6 - CASE STUDIES
A major aim of the SpinEd project was to exemplify in real terms the
ways in which Physical Education and school sport can contribute to school
life. A series of national case studies took place in a variety of contexts,
across six different continents.
Australia: Extending ‘at risk’
students’ participation in school life: A case study of progress
within a Specialist Sports School
D. Penney (Edith Cowan University, Western Australia)
This study at a Specialist Sports School in the Perth metropolitan area,
Western Australia explored:
The evidence supports the case for investment in clearly focused Physical
Education and school sport programs. Accompanying longitudinal research
will address the long-term impact of participation in initiatives such
as the school football programme.
Colombia: Physical Education
and a new life-style for the children of the hills of Bogotá
C. Anaya (Bogotá University, Colombia) The Institution of San Martin de Porres is attended by children from particularly
low income families that survive in very precarious circumstances. PESS
provided a gateway to a new lifestyle by developing values such as respect,
fair play and the encouragement of positive social behaviour. It also
encouraged individual personality and identity:
Japan (1): Participation in school sports clubs at junior
high schools in Yokohama T. Izaki (Canterbury Christ Church University College, UK)
This study explored children's perceptions of the social benefits of participating
in a school sports club and examined factors that encourage children to
develop their social ability. A sample of 13-14 year old children at different
schools in Yokohama who participated in a sports club at junior high school
took part in the study. Using a questionnaire and focus groups, information
was obtained from children about their background, their perceptions of
the sports club and their ability levels. Also, 281university students
reflected upon their experience and perceptions of school sports clubs
at elementary and junior high schools.
School sports clubs benefited participants by socialising with friends
and improving skill and fitness levels. This suggests that schools and/or
the local communities should ensure that children have opportunities to
access these clubs.
Japan (2): Sumo lessons as an aid for social development amongst city
dwelling children
F. Tanishima (Yokohama City University, Japan)
Introductory sumo lessons were observed over a three week period. Children,
their parents and the school nurse were interviewed. In the third week,
a competition was held to select players to participate in a school sumo
competition. The data demonstrated many benefits for the children taking
part in the sumo sessions, namely that they:
Elementary school pupils need motivating in the development of physical
activity by engaging in a wide variety of activities. This study shows
that a sport like sumo at a young age can encourage good manners, consideration
and patience with others. It also creates an awareness of the individual
body as well as the bodies of others.
South Africa: Physical Education and school sport in
South Africa: Contributions to South Africa post apartheid education
L. O. Amusa (University of Venda for Science and Technology, South Africa) This study provided an overview of current PESS in South Africa and found
that it is a case of extremes and inequities. Contrast is visible in all
aspects of South African life, but most significantly in education. 'White'
schools are relatively problem free, whereas black schools have been adversely
affected by the past government’s apartheid and separate development
policies. Some schools have well-developed facilities, while the majority
have next to nothing. PESS teachers are qualified in some cases and completely
unqualified in many cases. PESS programs in white schools offer content
with a wide and balanced variety of activities while others are limited
to a few movement activities. Some schools offer regular classes in which
all children participate for the entire period of schooling, while in
other schools the PESS program is partly or totally non-existent and not
all children participate.
The post-apartheid government has realized that PE can be used to help
the reconstruction, development and planning (RDP) program by provide
lots of experiences to children, which the changing society wants and
needs. The challenge confronting decision makers in South Africa is how
to set about achieving the global objectives of PE, sport and physical
activity in order to satisfy children and young people as well as those
expectations of their country.
UK: Developing effective movement observation and analysis techniques
in order to enhance the quality of children’s fundamental movement
achievements
P. Maude MBE (University of Cambridge, UK)
This study focused on the benefits of quality Physical Development and
Physical Education, by collecting and collating examples of good practice
for varied Early Years settings. The evaluation tool concentrated on collecting
of examples of good practice.
There was powerful evidence that Early Years’ practitioners are
in an excellent position to make a significant difference to the movement
development of children aged 3-7 years, within the allocated Play, Physical
Development and Physical Education provision within their setting, when
they:
Fundamental motor skills form the bedrock of children’s learning
in all areas of their daily experience. Competent fundamental motor skills
in the Early Years can also contribute to active and healthy life-styles
in later life.
Conclusion
The case study method presents an array of examples of how good practice
can contribute to pupils’ physical, lifestyle, affective, social
and cognitive development. The case studies involved children and young
people of different ages, participating in various activities, within
very different contexts. Yet the message from all the studies is clear:
quality PESS can do much to engage students and provide a sense of purpose
in their lives. It can also bring enjoyment and fun into their school
life. Importantly, also, it seems to be the case that quality PESS provides
firm foundations on which to encourage life long physical activity. 7 - CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
PESS has the potential to make a significant contribution to the overall
education and development of children and young people in many ways, although
further research and evaluation will help us better understand the nature
of this contribution. Nevertheless, in each of the domains discussed –
Physical, Lifestyle, Affective, Social, Cognitive – there is evidence
that PESS can have a positive and profound effect. In some respects, such
an effect is unique, owing to the distinctive contexts in which PESS take
place. However, a note of caution should be sounded, too. Neither the
literature review, nor the case studies support the claim that these effects
will occur automatically. There is no reason to believe that simply including
physical activities during the school day will necessarily bring about
positive changes to children or to educational systems. The actions and
interactions of teachers largely determine whether or not children and
young people experience these positive aspects, and whether or not they
realise the great potential of sport in education.
For this reason, the educational character
of PESS needs to be stressed, since it is in the values of educational
systems, and in the nature of the interactions between teachers and students,
that the true potential of PESS exists. Countless studies have demonstrated
that the quality of the educational experience offered by schools
significantly influences the learning and development of children and
young people. Therefore, the benefits attributed to PESS are less likely
to be realistravaillent.
The necessary conclusion to be drawn from this study is that quality school-based
PESS should be available to every child in every school system, as an
educational entitlement. The benefits of a quality PESS experience are
significant, and many of these benefits are not reproducible through other
areas of the curriculum, or through other sporting or physical activity
settings.
Members of the Project Steering Group, the authors of this report, as
well as representatives of ICSSPE/CIEPSS are at your disposal for any
queries or suggestions linked to this project.
The complete SpinEd Final Report is available
here to download as a PDF file:
SpinEd Final Report in Full [pdf, 92 pages, 1.286kb] Report authors:
Prof. Dr Richard Bailey and Harriet Dismore Project Steering Group: Prof. Dr Margaret Talbot Mag. Julika Ullmann Prof. Dr Roland Naul Contact:
Professor Dr Richard Bailey Centre for Physical Education Research Canterbury Christ Church University College United Kingdom, CT1 1QU Tel: 01227 782992 Email: physed@cant.ac.ukWeb: http://spined.cant.ac.uk ![]() http://www.icsspe.org/portal/bulletin-may2005.htm |