Feature
No.44
May 2005
 
    

SpinEd – Full Project Report (MINEPS IV)
The Role of Physical Education and Sport in Education
Prof. Dr Richard Bailey and Harriet Dismore, United Kingdom

Background:
This document represents the summary findings of an international research project financially supported by the International Olympic Committee and carried out on behalf of the International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE/CIEPSS) and the International Committee of Sport Pedagogy, a working group of ICSSPE/CIEPSS.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
  1. Sport in Education (SpinEd) is an international research project that aims to gather and present evidence regarding the benefits to schools of quality physical education and school sport (PESS). Its main objectives are: to construct a framework for evaluating the role of PESS, which can be adapted for use in different countries and cultures; to produce a research summary and annotated bibliography on the role of PESS; to collect examples of good practice, giving evidence of how PESS can make positive contributions to school life; to collect data regarding pupils’ perceptions of the outcomes of PESS.
  2. Through a combination of a comprehensive literature review, national case studies, web-based dissemination, and a large-scale questionnaire of children and young people’s views, the project has devised a framework for understanding and discussing the benefits of PESS. This framework structures the claimed benefits of PESS in terms of: Physical Development; Lifestyle Development; Affective Development; Social Development; and Cognitive Development.
  3. Both the case studies and the literature review show that PESS has the potential to make a significant contribution to the overall education and development of children. In each of the SpinEd domains – Physical, Lifestyle, Affective, Social, Cognitive – there is evidence that PESS can have a positive and profound effect. In some respects, such effects are unique, owing to the distinctive contexts in which PESS take place.
  4. The study also found that the school- and educational-focus of PESS offers important and distinctive benefits, including access to nearly all children, and the significant role of teachers in the learning process.
  5. The study concludes that the benefits of a quality PESS experience are significant, and many of these benefits are not reproducible through other areas of the curriculum, or through other sporting or physical activity settings. It suggests that quality school-based PESS should be available to every child in every school system, as an educational entitlement.
1 - INTRODUCTION
The World Summit on Physical Education, held in Berlin in November 1999, called attention to the serious decline in the state and status of physical education and school sport (PESS), all over the world. The Summit reported the findings of a world-wide survey, which presented evidence, from countries in all parts of the world, that the time and resources allocated to PESS had in almost all cases been seriously reduced; and it was argued that urgent action is required, both to improve the quality of PESS, and to secure its place in school curriculum time.
The present report summarises some of the findings of an international research project, funded by the International Olympic Committee, which offers a response to some of the problems confronting PESS. It has drawn together evidence from around the world on the benefits of PESS, and by seeking to identify a shared framework for understanding the subject and its contributions to educational systems and to children. In doing so, this project offers empirical support to Article 10 of the UNESCO Charter of Physical Education and Sport, which called for international co-operation in supporting and promoting:
the universal and well-balanced promotion of Physical Education (with a full range of organisations giving) Physical Education .. greater prominence in international bilateral and multi-lateral co-operation .. (indicating that such collaboration will) encourage the development of Physical Education .. throughout the world.

2 - THE SPORT IN EDUCATION PROJECT (SpinEd)
The SpinEd project’s aim was to gather and present evidence to policymakers regarding the benefits to schools of good quality PESS. Its main objectives were: to construct a framework for evaluating the role of PESS, which can be adapted for use in different countries and cultures; to produce a research summary and annotated bibliography on the role of PESS; to collect examples of good practice, giving evidence of how PESS can make positive contributions to school life; to collect data regarding pupils’ perceptions of the outcomes of PESS.
To realise these objectives, the project team drew on as wide a range of information as possible, including the voices of children and young people. It used a number of methods to gather data, which are summarised in the diagram below:


3 - TOWARDS A SHARED FRAMEWORK
A central theme within the SpinEd project is the importance of articulating a shared framework of understanding about the outcomes and benefits of PESS, that would be valid across cultures and political systems. The first stage was to find a working definition of PESS that was agreeable to the widest range of educational systems. This was achieved through a process of offering various definitions (drawn from published literature), and inviting feedback from the large team of respondents from around the world. Eventually, the following ‘functional’ definition of PESS was found to be acceptable to all questioned:
Physical education and school sport refers to structured, supervised physical activities that take place at school and during the school day.
Of course, a definition like this does not capture the full educational intent of any system’s PESS curriculum. However, it is worth noting that whilst there was great variation between different systems’ aims, justifications and foci, there was a surprising degree of consensus regarding the broad types of activities undertaken and the abilities developed in the name of PESS.
Next, it was necessary to develop a framework with which to structure the discussion of outcomes and benefits of PESS. The Steering Group, made up of very experienced and highly respected PESS scholars and teachers provided an initial list of themes, and these were subsequently tested by the project team. Testing consisted of evaluating the themes’ compatibility with curricula, textbooks and previously published frameworks from around the world, reviewing research literature related to teachers’ and students’ views of the outcomes of PESS, and asking the international team of respondents to assess the extent to which the framework accurately reflected their system’s PESS programme. The intention of this part of the project was to find a list of themes related to the outcomes of PESS that struck a balance between parsimony (the list should be simple and economical) and inclusion (it should acceptable to every educational system).
Eventually, a list of five main themes (or domains) was established, which referred to specific aspects of children’s and young people’s development:
  • Physical development
  • Lifestyle development
  • Affective development
  • Social development
  • Cognitive development

Each of these themes can be related to various sub-themes (or dimensions), which were more likely to reflect different educational systems’ values and priorities (for example, social development might be primarily understand in terms of national civic pride in one context, and co-operation and teamwork in another. Taking the most researched dimensions within the domains, a tentative framework emerged. This framework is provisional, and permanently so, as it is hoped that information and feedback with continue to be submitted.

4 - INTERNATIONAL LITERATURE REVIEW
Using the SpinEd framework as an organising structure, the project team carried out an extensive review of the international literature related to outcomes of sport in education, and associated fields, such as public health, medicine and exercise science. The findings of this review are summarised below (A longer and fully annotated version of this section is available at the SpinEd website: http://spined.cant.ac.uk).

4.1 Physical development
PESS is the main institution for the development of physical skills and the provision of physical activity in children. For many, school is the main environment for being physically activity. Also, there is evidence that for a growing number of children, school provides the main opportunity for regular, structured sport and physical activity.
The health benefits of regular physical activity are well-established. Regular participation in such activities is associated with a longer and better quality of life and reduced risk of a variety of diseases. Evidence is starting to appear suggesting a favourable relationship between physical activity and a host of factors affecting children’s physical health, including diabetes, blood pressure, bone health and obesity.
Basic movement skills, that are the core elements of most PESS programmes, form the foundation of almost all later sporting and physical activities. There is evidence that those who have a strong foundation in fundamental movement skills are more likely to be active, both during childhood and later in life. There is also a theory that the development of a broad range of these basic movement skills is a necessary condition for elite sport. Conversely, children who have not been able to acquire adequate movement competences are more likely to be excluded from participation in organised sports and play with their friends. As one of the most highly valued aspects of many children’s and young people’s lives, such exclusion from sports participation is likely to have far-reaching and harmful consequences to the development and education of many children.

4.2 Lifestyle development
PESS – one of the few opportunities to promote physical activities amongst all children – has been proposed as a cost-effective way to influence the next generation of adults to lead physically active lives. Research suggests that a number of factors contribute to the establishment of physical activity as part of a healthy lifestyle. There is some evidence that health-related behaviours learned in childhood are often maintained into adulthood, and a review of retrospective and longitudinal studies found that physical activity in childhood represents a significant predictor of later activity. Interestingly, studies also show how strongly inactivity in youth tracks to adulthood, so physical inactivity during the school years can leave a legacy of inactivity and associated ill-health in the years to come.
Studies have found that school-based programmes are particularly effective at promoting physical activity, both during youth and later in life. The potency of school’s influence seems to be greatest when programmes combine classroom study with activity, when they allow students experiences of self-determination and feelings of competence in their own abilities, and when they emphasised enjoyment and positive experiences in sport and activity.

4.3 Affective development
There is now fairly consistent evidence that regular activity can have a positive effect upon the psychological well-being of children and young people, although the underlying mechanisms for explaining these effects are still unclear. The evidence is particularly strong with regards to children’s self-esteem. Other associations with regular activity that have been reported include reduced stress, anxiety, and depression.
It is also worth considering the growing interest in the relationship between sport and attitudes towards school. A number of studies report positive outcomes in terms of pupil attendance following the introduction of sports-based schemes, and there is evidence from studies of pupils at risk of exclusion from school that an increase in the availability of sporting activities would make the school experience more attractive.
Of course, it ought to be acknowledged that not all pupils enjoy such activities, at least when presented in certain ways. For example, many girls acquire a progressive disillusionment with sport at school and totally disengage from participation as they move through secondary schooling. So, it would be misleading to suggest that sport will necessarily contribute towards positive attitudes to school in all pupils, as inappropriate provision might actually increase disaffection and truancy. More positively, though, there is a great deal of research showing that when sporting activities are presented in attractive and relevant ways to all types of students can enjoy participation.

4.4 Social development
The idea that participation in PESS positively affects children’s social development has a long history. The PESS is considered an appealing context because it offers naturally occurring social interactions. The research literature in this area is equivocal. It does not seem to be the case that prosocial behaviour necessarily improves as a result of playing sport. However, numerous studies have demonstrated that appropriately structured and presented activities can make a significant contribution to the development of prosocial behaviour, and can even combat anti-social and criminal behaviours in youth.
Again, the most encouraging findings come from school-based studies, especially those focusing on PESS programmes. Studies have found generally positive results, including improvements in moral reasoning, fair play and sportspersonship and personal responsibility.
Of related concern is the issue of social inclusion and exclusion. Combating social exclusion has become a focus of attention and concern in recent years. Positive sporting experiences do seem to have the potential to contribute to the process of inclusion by: bringing individuals from a variety of social and economic background together in a shared interest in sporting activities; offering a sense of belonging to a team or a club; providing opportunities for the development of valued capabilities and competencies; and developing social networks, community cohesion and civic pride.

4.5 Cognitive development
Researchers have suggested that physical activity at school can enhance academic performance by increasing the flow of blood to the brain, enhancing mood, increasing mental alertness and improving self-esteem. The evidence for such claims is varied and more research is still required. However, existing studies do suggest a positive relationship between intellectual functioning and regular physical activity.
In a well-known French study from the 1950s, researchers reduced ‘academic’ curriculum time by 26%, replacing it with physical activities, yet academic results did not worsen, there were fewer discipline problems, greater attentiveness and less absenteeism. More recent studies have found improvements for many children in academic performance when time for PESS is increased. The available evidence suggests that increased time for PESS does not interfere with pupils’ achievement in other subjects (although the time available for these subjects in consequently reduced), and in many instances it is associated with improved academic performance, improved attitudes to school and behaviour.

5 - CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S VIEWS OF PESS
A major part of the project was to collect data regarding children’s feelings and views of the outcomes of PESS. A summary of the findings is presented below (Only certain measures are reported here. For a fuller presentation, please go to http:spined.cant.ac.uk).
5.1 Feelings towards PESS
Children were asked about their general feelings towards PESS and these results are presented above. A total of 86% of children and young people had positive feelings towards the subject. Younger children were most likely to say that they loved PESS, whilst older children were most likely to say that they liked it. Boys were more likely to claim to love PESS, whilst girls were more inclined to say that they liked it. Overall, there was an extremely positive response from all groups regarding their feelings towards PESS.

5.2 Views of Outcome
Children were asked about the outcomes of PESS. The greatest number of students agreed that PESS keeps them fit and healthy (92%). A very high proportion of students also agreed that PESS helped them to prepare for sports competitions (83%) and that PESS helped them to carry on being physically active (76%). Other statements with which the majority of students agreed included:
  • PESS helps me to be part of a group’
  • PESS makes me proud to be part of my school’
  • PESS helps me make new friends’
  • PESS makes me respect myself more’
  • PESS encourages me to go to school’
  • PESS helps me respect others more’ and
  • PESS helps me to do well in school’
The positive results indicate that the vast majority of pupils enjoy and value PESS. It was especially interesting to find that despite living in a different country and attending different schools with different curricula, there was a great deal of agreement between the students in the various countries: PESS is a distinctive, valued and popular subject for the great majority of students questioned.

6 - CASE STUDIES
A major aim of the SpinEd project was to exemplify in real terms the ways in which Physical Education and school sport can contribute to school life. A series of national case studies took place in a variety of contexts, across six different continents.
Australia: Extending ‘at risk’ students’ participation in school life: A case study of progress within a Specialist Sports School
D. Penney (Edith Cowan University, Western Australia)
This study at a Specialist Sports School in the Perth metropolitan area, Western Australia explored:
  • How the Australian Rules Football academy have enhanced opportunities for Aboriginal students, many of whom were in educational terms ‘at risk’, to engage in school life;
  • the organisational / institutional, social, cultural and economic factors enabling or inhibiting enhancement of educational and sporting opportunities and take-up of these opportunities by the Aboriginal students;
  • the extent to which progress within the school context is mirrored beyond the school, in terms of the lives and lifestyles of the students concerned.
The evidence supports the case for investment in clearly focused Physical Education and school sport programs. Accompanying longitudinal research will address the long-term impact of participation in initiatives such as the school football programme.
Colombia: Physical Education and a new life-style for the children of the hills of Bogotá
C. Anaya (Bogotá University, Colombia)
The Institution of San Martin de Porres is attended by children from particularly low income families that survive in very precarious circumstances. PESS provided a gateway to a new lifestyle by developing values such as respect, fair play and the encouragement of positive social behaviour. It also encouraged individual personality and identity:
  • It distracts from the effects of economic hardship;
  • It stimulates students to achieve more academically;
  • Sport and Physical Education encouraged boys and girls to have pride in their school;
  • Through Physical Education, they became aware of the importance of discipline.
Japan (1): Participation in school sports clubs at junior high schools in Yokohama
T. Izaki (Canterbury Christ Church University College, UK)
This study explored children's perceptions of the social benefits of participating in a school sports club and examined factors that encourage children to develop their social ability. A sample of 13-14 year old children at different schools in Yokohama who participated in a sports club at junior high school took part in the study. Using a questionnaire and focus groups, information was obtained from children about their background, their perceptions of the sports club and their ability levels. Also, 281university students reflected upon their experience and perceptions of school sports clubs at elementary and junior high schools.
School sports clubs benefited participants by socialising with friends and improving skill and fitness levels. This suggests that schools and/or the local communities should ensure that children have opportunities to access these clubs.
Japan (2): Sumo lessons as an aid for social development amongst city dwelling children
F. Tanishima (Yokohama City University, Japan)
Introductory sumo lessons were observed over a three week period. Children, their parents and the school nurse were interviewed. In the third week, a competition was held to select players to participate in a school sumo competition. The data demonstrated many benefits for the children taking part in the sumo sessions, namely that they:
  • Develop positive attitudes and acquire the ability to control their emotions;
  • Learn to manage personal relationships;
  • Acquire perseverance and compassion;
  • Improve their concentration;
  • Become aware of their physical capabilities as well as those of others.
Elementary school pupils need motivating in the development of physical activity by engaging in a wide variety of activities. This study shows that a sport like sumo at a young age can encourage good manners, consideration and patience with others. It also creates an awareness of the individual body as well as the bodies of others.
South Africa: Physical Education and school sport in South Africa: Contributions to South Africa post apartheid education
L. O. Amusa (University of Venda for Science and Technology, South Africa)
This study provided an overview of current PESS in South Africa and found that it is a case of extremes and inequities. Contrast is visible in all aspects of South African life, but most significantly in education. 'White' schools are relatively problem free, whereas black schools have been adversely affected by the past government’s apartheid and separate development policies. Some schools have well-developed facilities, while the majority have next to nothing. PESS teachers are qualified in some cases and completely unqualified in many cases. PESS programs in white schools offer content with a wide and balanced variety of activities while others are limited to a few movement activities. Some schools offer regular classes in which all children participate for the entire period of schooling, while in other schools the PESS program is partly or totally non-existent and not all children participate.
The post-apartheid government has realized that PE can be used to help the reconstruction, development and planning (RDP) program by provide lots of experiences to children, which the changing society wants and needs. The challenge confronting decision makers in South Africa is how to set about achieving the global objectives of PE, sport and physical activity in order to satisfy children and young people as well as those expectations of their country.
UK: Developing effective movement observation and analysis techniques in order to enhance the quality of children’s fundamental movement achievements
P. Maude MBE (University of Cambridge, UK)
This study focused on the benefits of quality Physical Development and Physical Education, by collecting and collating examples of good practice for varied Early Years settings. The evaluation tool concentrated on collecting of examples of good practice.
There was powerful evidence that Early Years’ practitioners are in an excellent position to make a significant difference to the movement development of children aged 3-7 years, within the allocated Play, Physical Development and Physical Education provision within their setting, when they:
  • are given opportunities to develop knowledge;
  • become knowledgeable, experienced and feel confident;
  • are provided with the easily accessible, flexible and focused distance-learning tools;
  • have an opportunity to participate in peer tutoring activities;
  • are working within their current curriculum framework;
  • allowed to provide feedback.
Fundamental motor skills form the bedrock of children’s learning in all areas of their daily experience. Competent fundamental motor skills in the Early Years can also contribute to active and healthy life-styles in later life.
Conclusion
The case study method presents an array of examples of how good practice can contribute to pupils’ physical, lifestyle, affective, social and cognitive development. The case studies involved children and young people of different ages, participating in various activities, within very different contexts. Yet the message from all the studies is clear: quality PESS can do much to engage students and provide a sense of purpose in their lives. It can also bring enjoyment and fun into their school life. Importantly, also, it seems to be the case that quality PESS provides firm foundations on which to encourage life long physical activity.

7 - CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
PESS has the potential to make a significant contribution to the overall education and development of children and young people in many ways, although further research and evaluation will help us better understand the nature of this contribution. Nevertheless, in each of the domains discussed – Physical, Lifestyle, Affective, Social, Cognitive – there is evidence that PESS can have a positive and profound effect. In some respects, such an effect is unique, owing to the distinctive contexts in which PESS take place. However, a note of caution should be sounded, too. Neither the literature review, nor the case studies support the claim that these effects will occur automatically. There is no reason to believe that simply including physical activities during the school day will necessarily bring about positive changes to children or to educational systems. The actions and interactions of teachers largely determine whether or not children and young people experience these positive aspects, and whether or not they realise the great potential of sport in education.
For this reason, the educational character of PESS needs to be stressed, since it is in the values of educational systems, and in the nature of the interactions between teachers and students, that the true potential of PESS exists. Countless studies have demonstrated that the quality of the educational experience offered by schools significantly influences the learning and development of children and young people. Therefore, the benefits attributed to PESS are less likely to be realistravaillent.
The necessary conclusion to be drawn from this study is that quality school-based PESS should be available to every child in every school system, as an educational entitlement. The benefits of a quality PESS experience are significant, and many of these benefits are not reproducible through other areas of the curriculum, or through other sporting or physical activity settings.


Members of the Project Steering Group, the authors of this report, as well as representatives of ICSSPE/CIEPSS are at your disposal for any queries or suggestions linked to this project.
The complete SpinEd Final Report is available here to download as a PDF file:
SpinEd Final Report in Full [pdf, 92 pages, 1.286kb]
Report authors:
Prof. Dr Richard Bailey and Harriet Dismore
Project Steering Group:
Prof. Dr Margaret Talbot
Mag. Julika Ullmann
Prof. Dr Roland Naul

Contact:
Professor Dr Richard Bailey
Centre for Physical Education Research
Canterbury Christ Church University College
United Kingdom, CT1 1QU
Tel: 01227 782992
Email: physed@cant.ac.ukWeb: http://spined.cant.ac.uk




http://www.icsspe.org/portal/bulletin-may2005.htm