This technical paper will provide an overview of how sport and physical
activity can contribute to general positive health practices (e.g. non-smoking,
healthy diet, etc.) as well as to the prevention of problematic behaviours
such as early teenage pregnancies and antisocial or violent behaviour.
Summary
Most of the research on the effects of physical activity on health behaviours
has been conducted in the United States (US), Canada and Australia,
where nationally representative samples of youth involved in organized,
school- and community-based sport programmes are compared with those
who are not active in such programmes. The positive effects of these
types of organized physical activity, which in this report will be referred
to as ‘sport’, are well documented and reported on here.
In general, there is clear evidence that youths participating in competitive
sports programmes are more likely to eat more healthily, be of lower
weight, be less likely to smoke cigarettes, or engage in sexual activity.
In addition, sports participation has been shown to be associated with
less antisocial behaviours such as drinking alcohol, use of illicit
drugs, and engagement in violent activities. 1. The relationship between sport and smoking
Youth who participate in organized sports at school or in their communities
are less likely to engage in risky behaviours, such as cigarette smoking
and drug use, than non-sports participants (Pate, 2000). A study in
the US suggested that high school athletes smoke only slightly less
than their inactive classmates, but use snuff or chewing tobacco more
often. This study drew on data from a national survey of American adolescents
(Gerlach, 1996). 2. Sports, drugs, eating and drinking behaviours
Many studies show that youth involved in organized sports have lower
rates of drug use. Male and female teenaged athletes are less likely
to use drugs, including marijuana, cocaine, crack cocaine, heroin and
hallucinogens. Both male and female sports participants report a slightly
higher incidence of binge drinking than non-sports participants, but
lower overall alcohol use (Australian Institute of Criminology, 2000).
There is, however, some evidence that sports participation, particularly
among males, can increase some harmful health behaviours. In one study,
sports participants were as likely as non-participants to report engaging
in binge drinking during the previous month, as well as eating high-fat
foods, and vomiting or using laxatives to prevent weight gain. However,
in general, youth involved in organized sports are more likely to report
eating fruits or vegetables the previous day and less likely to be overweight
(US Department of Health And Human Services, 2004). 3. Sport and antisocial behaviour
Organized sports have been associated with less antisocial behaviour,
such as carrying a weapon, or contemplating or attempting suicide (US
Department of Health and Human Services, 2004.) Lower suicidal ideation
has been reported among those engaged in organized sports. Girls’
participation in sport enhances body image and self-esteem, increases
confidence and scholastic performance, decreases school dropout rates,
and reduces the risk of depression (Girls, Inc, 2000).
The Australian Sports Commission investigated whether sport and organized
physical activity programmes have a positive effect on youth antisocial
behaviour. A number of crime prevention strategies worldwide involve
physical activity and sports as deterrents to crime (Australian Institute
of Criminology, 2000).
Despite the empirical studies that show positive effects, research
has shown that in some cases, those who engage in highly competitive
contact sports, such as ice hockey, football, and rugby, may promote
violence among participants. In such cases, the pressures associated
with sports can promote excessive anxiety and aggressive behaviour.
The negative outcomes of sports involvement appear to be due to adults,
particularly parents and coaches, the emphasis on winning, and when
the pursuit of victory is accompanied by direct and indirect signals
that aggressive behaviour is acceptable to achieve it.
In spite of such evidence, the criminology literature includes recommendations
for making sports an avenue for reducing anti-social behaviour. Further,
many crime prevention programs have successfully used sport to promote
positive behaviours (Abdal-Haqq, 2004). 4. Sports and pregnancy prevention
Two large studies have found that girls who play
sports have lower pregnancy rates, engage in sexual intercourse less
frequently, have fewer partners, and begin sexual activity later than
those not involved with sports (Wade, 1998).
5. Physical activity vs. organized sport: are the effects
on health behaviours the same?
Considering that the literature on sport and health behaviour focuses
on participation in structured, organized and often competitive sports
for youth, it is reasonable to question if a similar positive effect
exists for physical activities that are less organized or competitive,
and fall under the ’30 minutes of moderate activity’ promoted
by many world and national public health agencies.
Only one study (reported in Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine,
2003) attempted to distinguish risky behaviours among adolescents who
are specifically associated with participation in team sports rather
than those associated with physical activity alone. Teenagers who are
physically active and participate in team sports were found to be less
likely to engage in unhealthy behaviour such as substance abuse and
risky sexual activities than those not involved in team sports. Fewer
boys in team sports were found to have used “other drugs”
like cocaine, heroin and methamphetamines, compared to their active
non-team counterparts. Otherwise, active team males were no less likely
to have used cigarettes, marijuana, or alcohol or to have initiated
intercourse than their active non-team or non-active peers (DiscoveryHealth.com,
2003). For female students, however, the combination of team sports
and physical activity was particularly important. Female teens who participated
in team sports and who were vigorously active were less likely to engage
in risky behaviours than teens that were only part of a team or only
exercised vigorously. This research might indicate that physical activity
in general, and being on a team but not participating are not sufficient
enough to gain a positive effect on health behaviour—teens need
to be active members of the team. The study’s authors say team
sports, particularly for girls, affords benefits beyond the known physical
ones.
In addition, there is evidence that parents who engage in physical activities
with their children are more likely to have children with positive health
behaviours. It seems clear that active parents play an important socializing
role in imparting positive health behaviours in their children.
More research must be conducted to determine if organized youth sports
yield a bigger impact on positive health behaviours than less organized
physical activity that might fall under the ’30 minutes of moderate
physical activity’ health recommendations by the World Health
Organisation, Centers for Disease Control and other public health institutions.
Obviously not all youth participate in organized, competitive sport
activity. Indeed, the children at risk for inactivity and negative health
behaviours may be those who do not have access to or are not inclined
to participate in group sports. Thus, there is a need for the development
of health-promoting physical activity outside of the rubric of organized,
competitive sport. 6. The theoretical bases for the relationship between
sport, physical activity and health.
The social and behavioural mechanisms by which sport affects health
are supported by a large amount of literature on determinants of health
behaviour. Three theoretical perspectives apply here.
First, sports may enhance health due to the positive socializing influences
of teachers, coaches, leaders and the requirements of team membership.
Leaders may be more likely to promote healthy lifestyles in the course
of team sport participation. The commitment to team sports, fear of
jeopardizing team positions, and pressure to be fit and healthy may
also enhance health.
Second, sports may provide an outlet for aggression and/or divert individuals
from negative influences. Placing youths in environments conducive to
positive behaviours leaves less time for engaging in negative behaviours
Third, sports may enhance personal resilience and esteem, and provide
a setting to learn positive health behaviours. For girls in particular,
athletic participation in sport may enhance self-confidence, provide
a sense of physical empowerment, and give social recognition within
the school and community. The self-reliance and social status gained
through athletic participation may help girls resist social pressures
to exchange sex for approval or popularity. 7. Implications
There is a clear consensus that children and youth should be involved
in physical activity on a regular basis, and that teaching/reward systems
should encourage active participation and enjoyment by all students,
not just the highly skilled. Indeed, it is the children who are the
least successful in traditional sports and athletics who are most likely
to be physically inactive and have the most negative health behaviours.
Research to date points to the strength of organized sport programs
in settings such as school or clubs as having the biggest demonstrable
impact on health, although there is good theoretical bases to believe
that non-structured physical activity of sufficient duration and intensity,
such as play, bike riding, swimming, should have an impact on health.
Further, there is a need to reach youth who are not attracted to or
have access to organized sport activities. 8. Recommendations
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