Introduction
There is an international consensus that participation in physical activities
can offer a great deal to individuals, communities and nations. Evidence
suggests that from an early age, differences in gender-based attitudes
towards and opportunities for sports and physical activities can have
a significant influence on children’s participation. This may,
in turn, affect later involvement in physically active lifestyles, and
the social and health benefits that may result for them.
This report offers a summary of research into girls’ participation
in sports and physical activities. It focuses upon the following themes:
To make the paper as useful as possible for readers
from different backgrounds, and to keep the main paper of a manageable
size, we have appended some additional information, including some suggestions
for future research in the area of gender and physical activity, further
reading, and details of relevant organisations.
Benefits of Sports and Physical Activities
Physical Health
The physical health benefits of regular physical
activity are well-established 1. Regular participation
in such activities is associated with a longer and better quality of life,
reduced risks of a variety of diseases and many psychological and emotional
benefits 2 . There is also a large body of literature showing that inactivity
is one of the most significant causes of death, disability and reduced
quality of life in the developed world3 .
Physical activity may influence the physical health
of girls in two ways. First, it can affect the causes of disease during
childhood and youth. Evidence suggests a positive relationship between
physical activity and a host of factors affecting girls’ physical
health, including diabetes, blood pressure and the ability to use fat
for energy 4. Second, physical activity could reduce the risk of chronic
diseases in later life 5 . A number of ‘adult’ conditions,
such as cancer, diabetes and coronary heart disease, have their origins
in childhood, and can be aided, in part, by regular physical activity
in the early years 6 . Also, regular activity beginning in childhood helps
to improve bone health, thus preventing osteoporosis, which predominantly
affects females 7.
Obesity deserves special mention. There seems to
be a general trend towards increased childhood obesity in a large number
of countries 8, and this increase seems to be particularly prevalent in
girls from highly urbanised areas, some ethnic minorities and the disabled 9
. Obesity in childhood is known to have significant impact on both physical
and mental health, including hyperlipidemia, hypertension and abnormal
glucose tolerance 10. Physical activity can be an important feature of
a weight control programme for girls 11 , increasing calorific expenditure
and promoting fat reduction. Indeed, recent systematic reviews on both
the prevention and treatment of childhood obesity recommend strategies
for increasing physical activity 12 .
Mental Health
In recent years, there has been evidence of disturbingly
high rates of mental ill-health among adolescents and even younger children,
ranging from low-self-esteem, anxiety and depression to eating disorders,
substance abuse and suicide 13. Adolescent girls are particularly vulnerable
to anxiety and depressive disorders: by 15 years, girls are twice as likely
as boys to have experienced a major depressive episode 14; girls are also
significantly more likely than boys to have seriously considered suicide 15
.
Research suggests two ways in which physical activities
can contribute to mental health in girls. Firstly, there is fairly consistent
evidence that regular activity can have a positive effect upon girls’
psychological well-being; indeed, some studies indicate that girls may
respond more strongly than boys in terms of short-term benefits 16. Secondly,
research has indicated that physical activity can contribute to the reduction
of problematic levels of anxiety and depression. Evidence is beginning
to be gathered for exercise as a treatment for clinical depression, with
studies finding that physical activity is as effective a treatment as
anti-depressants 17, and psychotherapy 18. Similarly, a variety of non-clinical
studies have found that higher levels of activity were related to lower
rates of depression 19. A position statement of the International Society
of Sport Psychology 20 drew out numerous mental health benefits of physical
activity from the research literature, including reduced state anxiety,
neuroticism and anxiety, mild to moderate depression, and various kinds
of stress.
Educational and Intellectual Development
A range of evidence suggests that for many girls,
sports and physical activities are positive features of their academic
aspirations and achievement. The classic study of the relationship between
physical activity and school performance was carried out in France in
the early 1950s, in Vanves 21. Researchers reduced ‘academic’
curriculum time by 26%, replacing it with physical activities, yet academic
results did not worsen, there were fewer discipline problems, greater
attentiveness and less absenteeism. More recent studies have found improvements
for many children in academic performance when time for physical activity
is increased in their school day 22. A report of three longitudinal studies
emphasises that ‘academic performance is maintained or even enhanced
by an increase in a student’s level of habitual physical activity,
despite a reduction in curriculum or free time for the study of academic
material’ 23.
There is considerable evidence of a positive relationship
between girls’ participation in sports and pro-educational values,
although, at present, it is difficult to distinguish between correlation
and causation. Studies from the United States 24 report a host of encouraging
findings including: girls who participate in sports are more likely to
achieve academic success than those who do not play sports; female high
school athletes expressed a greater interest in graduating from both high
school and college; female athletes from ethnic minority groups reported
better school grades and greater involvement in extra-curricular activities
than non-athletes, and in some cases are considerably less likely to drop-out
from school. Other studies have suggested that sports participation can
help undermine traditional gender stereotyping in terms of academic aptitude,
by demonstrating an association between girls’ engagement in sports
and improved performance in science and mathematics 25.
Reproductive Health
Adolescent pregnancy and sexual ill-health are major
social problems across the globe 26.
Although there is a shortage of research in this area, early studies conducted in the US have found that adolescent girls 27 who participate in sports tend to become sexually active later in life, have fewer partners, and, when sexually active, make greater use of contraception than non-sporting girls . Projects are currently underway in the developing world that use sports participation as a strategy for empowering girls to avoid high risk sexual behaviour 28 Social Inclusion
Combating social exclusion, or ‘the multiple
and changing factors resulting in people being excluded from the normal
exchanges, practices and rights of modern society’ 29, has become
a focus of attention for governments and non-government organisations
in recent years 30. Some writers have argued that sports not only reflect
but can also contribute to girls’ social exclusion in sports and
wider society 31. Certainly, the dominance of sports as culturally valued
physical activities, and the close identification of sports with masculinity,
means that other, non-masculine groups can become pushed to the margins.
However, positive sports experiences do seem to have the potential to,
at least, contribute to the process of inclusion by: bringing individuals
from a variety of social and economic background together in a shared
interest in activities that are inherently valuable; offering a sense
of belonging, to a team, a club or a programme; providing opportunities
for the development of valued capabilities and competencies; and increasing
‘community capital’, by developing social networks, community
cohesion and civic pride 32.
Studies of women’s experiences of sports participation
have suggested that they can contribute to a more generalised feeling
of empowerment 33. In many settings, adolescents may be encouraged to
view their bodies as sexual and reproductive resources for men, rather
than sources of strength for themselves 34. Physical activities may help
them develop a sense of ownership of their bodies and access the types
of activity experiences traditionally enjoyed by boys 35. This may be
because participation augments girls’ self-esteem 36, or because
being an athlete carries with it a strong public identity 37. Some female
athletes report having a stronger sense of identity and self-direction
– what Talbot calls ‘being herself through sport’ 38
. Whatever the reasons, increasing the numbers of girls’ participating
in sports and physical activities does seem to open up routes through
which they can acquire new community affiliations and begin to operate
more openly and equally in community life. In doing so, girls’ participation
can challenge and change social norms about their roles and capabilities 39
.
Patterns of Girls’ Participation in Sports and
Physical Activities
International guidelines on physical activity in
childhood and youth suggest that all young people should take part in
sports or other physical activities, be physically active on all or most
days, and engage in activity that is of at least moderate intensity, and
lasting about an hour 40. Whilst girls in many contexts do achieve these
targets 41, there is considerable evidence from around the world suggesting
that most do not 42.
Tables 1 and 2 (below) summarise a range of empirical
research into girls’ participation in sports and physical activities.
These and other studies report a clear trend of decreasing levels of activity
as girls get older, and a widening disparity between girls’ and
boys’ physical activity behaviours 43. For example, one US study
estimated that the decline in physical activity during secondary schooling
is 7.4% for girls, compared with 2.7% for boys 44. Another report suggested
that Australian female adolescents were approximately 20% less active
than their male peers 45. Since sedentary lifestyles are associated with
increased risk of ill-health, both during childhood and in later life,
these figures are cause for concern.
Table 1: Selection of studies examining girls’ participation in
sports and physical activities ‘Country’ refers to the setting of the research, rather than that of the author’s home institution.
Table 2: Selection of studies comparing girls’ and boys’
participation in sports and physical activities Influences on Girls’ Participation
It has been suggested that there is a genetic predisposition towards
being more or less physically active 54. However, any such predisposition
is mediated by a host of factors, some of which are outlined in Table
3 (the discussion that follows will, necessarily, be selective, but further
detail is available in the indicated references).
Table 3: Factors influencing girls’ participation (adapted from
Sallis 55)
Age
Age is the dominant biological determinant of physical
activity in girls 56. Overall, levels of activity steadily decline from
about 6 years of age until adolescence, when activity levels drop more
steeply 57. Whether this decline ought to be understood solely in terms
of biological influences is dubious, and it is, perhaps, noteworthy that
the decline in sporting or physical activities among girls around 11 or
12 years occurs almost simultaneously with the period when gender ideology
sharply interacts with socialisation influences.
Perceived barriers
A recent review of 108 published studies addressing
correlates of physical activity identified perceived barriers as the most
consistent negative psychological correlate of physical activity 58. Studies
specifically focused upon girls’ perceived barriers to physical
activity are still relatively rare 59, and predominantly come from the
US, but themes are beginning to emerge. Both qualitative and quantitative
studies have identified girls’ wish to do other things with their
time as a frequent explanation for non-participation 60. Other explanations
for inactivity include unsuitable weather, school pressures, dissatisfaction
with school physical education classes, reluctance to get sweaty or dishevelled,
and inaccessibility or inconvenience of sporting provision 61. Summarising
this data, Sallis and Owen state that, ‘It appears that adolescents
are not just acquiring adult patterns of sedentary habits, they are also
acquiring adult ways of thinking about exercise, including reasons (or
excuses) for not being active’ 62.
Peers
Sports and physical activities are usually social
events for children 63. Similarly, physically active adolescents tend
to socialise with friends who are also active 64. Whilst a peer group
can act as powerful enforcer of norms and behaviours for both boys and
girls, there is evidence that they use and view friendships in different
ways. Studies suggest that a key factor in whether girls engage in and
sustain physical activities was whether they had a same-sex friend with
whom to participate 65. This may, in part, be due to the support structure
such shared experiences can offer, especially during adolescence, when
many girls consider reducing their commitment to physical activities that
they are most anxious about being rejected or excluded from same-sex friendships 66. For girls, physical activities often become less important in their
lives as they, encouraged by pressure from their peer group to seek other
activities associated with their preferred perceptions of femininity 67.
Family
Numerous studies have emphasised the influence of
the family on childhood physical activity levels 68. Active parents have
been shown to have more active pre-school children, older children and
adolescents 69; activity levels are further supported with an active sibling 70. Studies generally identify fathers as playing the primary role in influencing
children’s participation in sports and physical activities 71. It
is noteworthy, then, that fathers have also often been reported to be
the primary socialisation agent for gender role development 72. The nature
and extent of physical play opportunities depend greatly on the set of
beliefs and expectations held by the parents, and these beliefs are particularly
significant in relation to gender 73. Some writers have argued that involvement
in physical activities is a product of a cultural belief system that values
certain activities and skills for one sex and not for the other 74. From
an early age, many parents, in a range of cultures, treat boys and girls
differently and encourage different styles of play in physical activity
contexts 75, most commonly by providing gender-based toys and encouraging
boys and girls to engage in gender stereotyped activities, usually with
boys encouraged to play vigorously and girls quietly.
Role Models
The role models who influence children’s physical
activity participation change over time 76. In early childhood, primary
role models are parents, with friends and teachers becoming more significant
as they enter school, and sportsplayers, coaches and celebrities gaining
in influence in adolescence 77. Boys and girls tend to attribute role
models differently, with girls being more likely to name parents as models,
while boys more often named public figures, such as sports stars 78. This
difference may be due, in part, to the evident lack of female sporting
role models available to girls 79. This is not necessarily as serious
as it might seem, since studies have emphasised the importance of learners’
self-efficacy in this process: similarity to models in terms of gender,
age and ability enhances self-efficacy and motivates performance. ‘Stars’
are most likely to inspire imitation when they are perceived by observers
as having some connection with their lives 80, and when their success
seemed attainable. So, effective role models need not be the most outstanding
sporting individuals, but rather, may come from within the school (other
pupils or teachers) or at home (parents or siblings 81.
Physical Education
Being the primary societal institution with responsibility
for promoting physical activity in young people, school physical education
has the potential to be a powerful force against sedentary lifestyles:
‘The potential of PE to reach virtually all children makes it a
uniquely important resource’ 82. Especially important, in this regard,
is the Primary/Elementary phase of schooling, which has the advantages
of relatively high engagement in physical education lessons 83, and students
who are curious about their bodies and receptive to health information 84
. Whilst the amount of actual activity experienced during many physical
education lessons is probably inadequate to deliver health outcomes 85
, physical education is well placed to facilitate the development of a
foundation of movement skills 86 and positive attitudes towards recreational
physical activities 87, which are likely to positively contribute to health.
It ought to be stressed that physical education lessons
do not necessarily promote physical activity in children. Indeed, there
is evidence that inappropriate provision can disaffect some students,
especially girls 88. In many settings, a narrow curriculum, dominated
too heavily by competitive team games, fails to address the needs and
interests of the whole school population, and does not transfer well to
out-of-school and adult sporting participation 89. Many girls reject an
overly competitive teaching climate, even the very able and physically
active, and prefer individual, creative or co-operative activities 90.
The outcome is often that, whilst positive physical education experiences
are highly supportive of lifelong physical activity habits, inappropriate
provision can actually harm such healthy practices 91. Nevertheless, it
needs to be acknowledged that schools and, especially physical education,
continue to be vital factors potentially supportive of sporting and physical
activities. Evidence from many countries around the world of reduced curriculum
time and facilities, therefore, is serious cause for concern 92.
Type of activity
Although boys are generally more physically active
than girls, little is known about possible explanations for this. It may
be that boys spend more time in activity-enhancing environments than girls,
particularly out-of-doors 93. Also, boys and girls often engage in different
types of activities 94, although it is not clear always why this would
be the case. In many contexts, boys and girls are offered distinct activities
on the basis of their gender 95, and even when they are presented with
nominally the same curriculum content, boys tend to dominate in many sports.
So, it may be that many girls’ unwillingness to engage with sports
and physical activities can be attributed as much to the terms of their
participation as the activities, themselves 96.
Independent mobility
Parents’ fears and concerns regarding safety
can be a powerful constraint on children’s time and access to opportunities
for physical activity 97. The now classic study of independent mobility 98
found a connection between restrictions placed on children’s freedom
to be away from home and participation in both organised and unorganised
sports and physical activities. A number of studies have shown significant
gender differences in independent mobility, with boys experiencing far
more freedom than girls to be active 99. Very often girls’ freedoms
to move are curtailed by cultural norms and conditions that determine
where it is safe or appropriate for them to go 100. Nevertheless, many
girls do take part in out-of-doors physical activities, especially if
opportunities are convenient. The finding that the more places that are
available in which girls can be active, the more they are active, is salutary 101
.
Examples of Innovative Practices
GoGirlGo! Women’s Sports Foundation, USA
http://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/cgi-bin/iowa/index.html
This three-year initiative organised by the Women’s Sports Foundation aims to get one million inactive girls to participate in regular physical activity and keep another one million currently active girls between the ages of 8-18 from dropping out of physical activity. The national education and awareness campaign arms adults and girls with tools to enable girls to live an active lifestyle and educate others about physical activity. The programme includes an education and awareness campaign, community-based activation, a grant programme and peer-to-peer and adult-to-youth-mentoring. Integrated girl-child education through sports, Maslandapur
Sarada Sevashram, India
http://www.sportsbiz.bz/womensportinternational/advocacy/women_sports_india.doc
This programme has been set up by grass root community based Non-Government Organisations of West Bengal State of India to integrate ‘girl-child’ education through sports. The programme identifies the ‘girl-child’ as illiterate and a school drop out and provides basic education through the establishment of pre-primary schools in the communities. Basic infrastructures of ‘community sports’ are developed for the mental, physical and physiological development of the ‘girl-child’. The programme also includes women’s training and the involvement of community school children. It is hoped that in time the community sports programme will also run in different rural and urban communities through NGOs and school networks. Junior Girls Cricket Squad, Illawarra Academy of Sport,
Australia
www.activeaustralia.org/women/strategies_practice.pdf
The Illawarra Academy of Sport introduced a junior female cricket development squad in 1996. It was the first of its kind in Australia and was developed because organisers felt talented junior girls were leaving the sport prematurely owing to the lack of a formal women’s competition in the Illawarra region. In setting up the squad, the academy identified a number of potential elite-level cricketers playing in the school system, in indoor cricket sides and in male competitions. Letting Girls Play, The Mathare Youth Sports Association,
Kenya
http://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/girlsplay.pdf
Evaluated by the Population Council, this case study documents a remarkable effort in Kenya that has helped to create spaces for girls that draw them into sports and community service. It describes the experience of the Mathare Youth Sports Association, a non-governmental organisation based in an impoverished urban setting, and its efforts to integrate girls into a community-based, large-scale youth programme. On the Move, Canadian Association for the Advancement
of Women and Sport and Physical Activity, Canada
www.caaws.ca/onthemove/index.htm
On the Move is a national initiative designed to increase the participation of non-active girls and women (ages 9-18) in recreational sports and physical activities. It is an innovative programming concept that advocates for female-only, participant-driven, community-specific programs, and questions traditional models of service delivery. On The Move is also a national network of professionals involved in female-only programming, and individuals and organisations concerned with the health and well-being of girls and young women. The network is a resource for information about the importance of increasing girls’ and young women’s participation, and shares programme successes and challenges. Women Active Project, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sport, Science
and Technology, Japan
http://www.jws.or.jp/eng/index.html This project aimed to explore the factors that prevent women from participating in physical activity and has been presented in a document entitled ‘Data on Women and Sport’. The research focused upon the development and progress of women’s sports, competition and lifelong activity. The project consisted of a survey that attempted to explore women’s participation in 'sports to play' and 'sport to view'. It also investigated factors in relation to consumer behaviour and childcare, particularly the condition of child care and toilet facilities in both public and private sports institutions. Recommendations
The benefits of participation in physical activities
are great, and the potential costs of inactivity can be severe. Many girls
around the world are not currently able to take advantage of the benefits
of regular sports and physical activities due to inequitable access and
opportunities 102. Therefore, a central challenge facing governments,
schools, sports groups and communities is to develop forms of physical
activity that are sensitive to girls’ needs and interests. But rather
than focusing on ‘girl-friendly’ sports 103, we should be
looking for ways to make sports and other physical activities more ‘child-friendly’
and ‘youth-friendly’.
Our reading of the research suggests a number
of strategies that promote such ‘child-friendly’ practices,
facilitate regular physical activity, and are supportive of positive sporting
experiences.
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Appendix 1: Discussion Paper: Ways Forward: Theorising
Gender and Physical Activity
If sexual discrimination is objectionable in most other areas of our
lives, why should it be acceptable within sports?
Introduction
Much of the writing on girls’ and physical activity has tended
to explore the negative aspects of exclusion from what is considered
a male arena of sport . Although important and relevant, this position
has often resulted in a plethora of descriptive accounts of women’s
exclusion which could be seen as surreptitiously consolidating existing
gender divisions or binaries without taking into consideration other
social factors such as, for instance, age, the body, geography, economics
and race . Consequently, many investigations into gender in sport have,
ultimately, positioned all boys as benefiting from sport and all girls
excluded, which is obviously not the case.
The social interpretation of biological sex does, however, continue
to influence the way physical education and physical activity is constructed
for girls and women . Historically, physical assertion was considered
as being harmful to girls’ overall development and the social
understanding of ‘motherhood’ dictated that girls were seen
as passive carers rather than as active providers. Evidence tends to
suggest that many of these values are still supported and it is the
early experiences of girls which often provide the foundation for future
participation . Early experiences of physical activity
It is important to recognise the significance of
girls’ early experiences of physical activity and it is often within
the context of school physical education lessons where understanding of
individual sporting identity is developed. It is interesting to note that
what were initially regarded as lesser concerns for school governing bodies,
such as specific uniforms for physical education lessons and the standards
of showering facilities, were found to be significant aspects in girls’
actual enjoyment of school sports . Recognition of individual experience
of the body has often been overlooked in favour of broader policy driven
issues relating to health and educational provision. Particularly in sports,
there are many occasions where the body is literally displayed and this
has the potential for the individual to be exposed to negative emotional
experiences of shame and bodily embarrassment . In consequence, sport
has the potential to be a source of embarrassment by way of being an activity
where the body is fore-grounded. Uniforms can often be revealing and communal
showers can be the source of unwanted displays of the naked body, particularly
at a time when girls are becoming more acutely aware of the social female
body. The recognition of the body as a contributory factor in shame is
equally significant for boys and highlights the importance of incorporating
this aspect within any study of youth sports. Studies
have also highlighted a greater emphasis upon discipline in physical education
compared to other aspects of the curriculum. For instance, Scraton incorporates
sociological explanations, which describe the influence of everyday knowledge
and language in the regulation of bodies, and demonstrates how they can
be applied to particular practices found in physical education. Additional
emphasis on discipline in the context of physical education lessons suggests
that distinctions are being made between cerebral pursuits of academic
study and corporeal activities and that differing forms of regulation
are required.
By the time students enter secondary school, they
have developed clear activity preferences . For instance, dance and gymnastics
is shown to be either loved or hated by students by the time they reach
secondary school. In gymnastics, it was found that enjoyment was closely
related to personal ability whereas those who disliked it found the experience
humiliating. Similarly, in dance there were opportunities for creativity
and expression which were seen as positive. However, the teaching approaches
and presence of boys were cited as reasons for not liking it. What becomes
apparent is that bodily performances play an important role in the experience
of physical education, not only in terms of bio-mechanical dexterity but
more in the way that social bodily performances become central to whether
a sport is enjoyed or not. Lack of ability is a contributory factor, but
there are many other social situations which emerge which have the potential
to cause humiliation. Elements considered essential to the performance
of a sport, such as competition, bodily performances, display of ability,
winning or losing are often overlooked in terms of how these impact upon
individual self-esteem.
Geographical and physical aspects can contribute
to the positive or negative experience of school sports on the individual
body. Some ways to combat the negative experience of sport which many
school children face include the provision of a broader curriculum, more
practical applications of uniform policy and teaching strategies which
enhance rather than diminish self-esteem. However, one of the solutions
offered is to focus upon ways in which girls can have access to the same
range of activities as boys. This is problematic, as it does not take
into consideration one of the main areas causing negative experience,
chiefly, the elements within the practices involved in school sports which
contribute to the experience of them in terms of shame and humiliation.
These are not areas which are the sole reserve of girls, but are equally
experienced by boys who do not conform to those same expectations which
restrict the girls. Thus, work which incorporates the acknowledgement
of a range of subordinated masculinities within the context of sport needs
to be applied . Looking beyond established physical education
theory
Physical education lessons present an important arena for construction
and consolidation of dominant and subordinate masculinities and femininities
. The sites where physical education is located, such as the gym, sports
hall or playing field function as the context for displays of hegemonic
forms of heterosexual masculinities and the subordination of others
or alternatives.
The ideal types of bodily usage expected within physical
education can be regarded as generally located in traditional understandings
of male and female sports. Therefore, the different bodily usages encouraged
by secondary school physical education, both permit and support the development
of particular masculinities and femininities:
In secondary schools in particular, physical education
lessons are an important arena for the displaying and acting out of masculinity
and femininity, particularly those forms which could be described as hypermasculine
and hyperfeminine .
According to this argument, much of physical education
remains gender-segregated and a place where specific gendered performances
are expected and encouraged. This is particularly the case for young men
and women where there is more uncertainty about what constitutes correct
or appropriate performances. For some theorists , sport (school sports
in particular) operates as a means of presenting broader social constructions
of gender and identity. Physical education, therefore, provides an important
arena for boys to act out hypermasculinity . Consequently, the relationship
of girls and femininity to physical education is more complex, partly
because the agenda is set by the boys and interest in sports is excluded
for girls by their male peer group.
Expressions of femininity are often demonstrated
by resistance to physical education and sports in a similar way that expressions
of masculinity are demonstrated through sporting prowess and resistance
to ‘passive’ academic work in the classroom . School sports
continue to reinforce gender binaries which position the activities of
girls as subordinate to boys :
The dominance of competitive sport [in popular
culture, though less than heretofore in the official PE curriculum (Department
for Education and Employment, 1999)] and monadic, surface-focused fitness
practices discourage the development and use of open, communicative bodily
practices and forms .
Many theoretically focused studies do not always provide any concrete
solutions or ways forward, but what is clear is that methods are required
which can cut through and break the stranglehold that gender stereotypes
have on traditional forms of physical education and sports. Theoretical
debates surrounding the gendered practices evident within physical education
and school sports are informative as they offer support to claims that
studies within this area need to include consideration of the body and
broader academic approaches. Particular issues emerge which need to
be considered in any further investigations of girls and school sports.
These are:
Key Themes
Drawing upon a broader theoretical base is important and it is by incorporating
theories from other disciplines, that further investigations into the
experiences of young people in sports should be made. Consequently,
the following are areas we consider relevant in any further research
into gender and sports. These are:
The Body
The influence of the body within the area of physical activities is
becoming increasingly apparent and may provide a way of addressing some
of the problems associated with gender specific investigations. For
instance, it has been suggested that acknowledging the role of the body
in shaping the way society constructs an understanding of individual
and social identity is vital . To do this, one needs to draw upon a
broad range of concepts, but apply them in terms of the body. Thus,
if we are to explore the experience of a young person in school based
physical education we must identify a range of biological and social
factors which ultimately influence future participation. Thus, biological
factors which determine the type of body, such as gender, height, weight
or coordination have to be understood in terms of an individual’s
social perspective, such as economic background, religion, and sexuality.
Therefore, in this way, the physical make up of a boy or girl as small
in comparison to others, combined with a social understanding of the
body as weak (or feminine) establish an entirely different perspective
on entering a sport to another boy or girl. Consequently, the social
experiences of the individual vary depending upon the social and physical.
For example, through this process, a boy can learn to see sports as
an alien environment in the same way that many girls do because of early
experiences of the body as feminine, for instance, being told that he
‘throws like a girl’ .
Therefore, recognising the social and physical factors
which are apparent within the arena of sport provides a way in which we
can evaluate current practices and mount a challenge to those which exclude
particular bodies. For example, a cold, muddy pitch, or hot, dusty field
can be experienced physically by the body in many different ways, whilst,
at the same time, culturally derived expectations of ‘how to behave’
in such conditions contribute as well.
Other disciplines have already set out to challenge
many taken for granted assumptions. Particularly within feminist theory
, and more recently in Queer Theory , there have been attempts to subvert
some of the traditional practices found in broader society, but these,
too, can equally be applied to sports, especially in terms of social factors
such as gender, age and ability.
Competence and Ability
The relationship of competence as a factor in taking part in many forms
of organised sports is often overlooked. This applies to sporting participation
on a number of levels, whether within the context of a school physical
education lesson or as an initial entry requirement for joining an amateur
sports club.
General thinking about ability has been a notable
absence, particularly within education settings and organised sports practice.
Often the focus upon is upon acquiring sporting competence and derived
health benefits rather than the specific bodily practices which are required
for participation .
Consequently, in schools, more support is given to
those who display talent in the form of physical ability and expertise
in the sports played. This can often lead to many sports ultimately favouring
boys in mixed schools.
School Physical Education and Sport Performance
School based sport is an important area for study, as it is sometimes
the only experience of physical activity gained by young girls (and
boys). Related indirectly to the issues of competence and ability discussed
above is the importance of recognising the relationship between school
physical education and sport performance. Traditional ways of thinking
about physical education and sports performance are problematic and
exclusionary . This is because much traditional thinking is based on
‘pyramid’ models. These take on similar assumptions, namely
that there should be a broad base of foundation skills participation,
with increasingly higher levels of performance participated in by decreasing
numbers of people. Typically, the assumption is made that foundation
skills are learnt through physical education and in this mode of thinking,
physical education forms the base of the structure whilst elite sports
competition is at the top.
An alternative to this model, which, as the pyramid
grows, discards more and more people, an ‘inclusive’ model
which has four components:
They cite the Queensland model which operates in
Australia as one approach which is explicitly inclusive of all levels
of performance and ages. This model, they believe, provides a convincing
argument as it does address the varying levels of performance within a
range of age groups. However, a criticism may be made at the continued
lack of acknowledgement of the cultural capital or status placed upon
elite performances which can ultimately detract or deter others from continuing
in the sport. Often the way in which clubs, schools, physical education
teachers and coaches focus upon elite performers as preferred goal can
indirectly present participation as futile or unrealistic for many.
Australia has appeared to take the lead in many policy
related issues within the area of school sports and in particular girls’
participation. The Australian Sports Commission produced one such document
detailing strategies devised to encourage women and girls to take a more
active part in sport. Part of that provision was the recognition of the
role of schools within this process, as the only organisations that can
ensure the provision of sport for the majority of young people.
In this document they listed a series of strategies
to help achieve this principle within the school setting: Although these
strategies cover a broad range of issues and may be difficult to accommodate
in all cases, putting down on paper a series of objectives provides the
opportunity to move towards particular goals and ideally, these goals
can be adapted and revised as needs be. The formulation of a series of
strategies also helps identify further issues of potential conflict. For
instance, one of the problems highlighted within their list is the apparent
assumption that all boys experience sports in the same way. Thus the point
about single sex competition providing a better way to for all to have
a ‘fair go’ does not sufficiently address the differing versions
of masculinities and femininities. Equally, the strategy to provide private
changing facilities for girls assumes that boys are less conscious about
their bodies during adolescence than girls.
Cultural change
It is also important to recognise shifts in social patterns of leisure
consumption. For instance, there is the suggestion that a pronounced
feature of adolescence is a flight from sports when they complete full
time education . However, it follows that much physical education rhetoric
fails to (a) acknowledge the actual participatory trends in sports and
physical activity (such as swimming and cycling). (b) view young people’s
lives in the ‘round’ – or take into consideration
the broader dimensions of young people’s lives for their participation
rates and styles and (c) identify an appropriate way to monitor participation
if taking into account (a) and (b).
Recent research has highlighted increased levels
of participation in sports and physical activity among young people, particularly
in non-competitive, recreationally oriented sports. This is particularly
evident in the participation rates for swimming and cycling which may,
in turn, provide another reason for the apparent lack of relevance of
many traditional school based sports for young people .
Diversity
A recent study by the Youth Sports Trust in the United Kingdom draws
upon some of the ideas mentioned above, although there is less emphasis
upon broader theoretical issues. However, it is able to highlight some
useful points. For instance, it suggests that,
If the social construction of gender is ‘the problem’, then
this means that our efforts need to focus on girls and boys, women and
men. We need to trouble dominant and stereotypical notions of femininity
and masculinity. We need to develop a pedagogy in physical education
that is anti-sexist and that aims to change deeply held sexist beliefs
and values .
Part of this process is to challenge so-called ‘traditional’
forms of physical education characterised by:
Human Rights
Lastly, and most importantly, the issue of human rights should be a
central concern within any legitimate study of sport and physical education.
The Beijing Declaration states that it is important to,
Recognize that the status of women has advanced in some important respects
in the past decade but that progress has been uneven, inequalities between
men and women have persisted and major obstacle remain, with serious
consequences for all people.
Initiatives to counter inequalities in sports, such
as ‘Sports for All’, become meaningless if they do not take
into account the rights of all human beings. Consequently, all the above
themes directly feed into the central premise that every individual should
have the right to enjoy their bodies through physical activities. Philosophical
and ethical questions will help us reflect upon the role of physical activity
in the lives of, not only women, but of all individuals, regardless of
body type.
What next?
It is apparent that there is still scope for much more informed research
within the area of gender and sports. The ‘Western’ focus
of this discussion paper is a clear indication that further research
needs to be generated from other areas of the world. The absence of
women’s voices from, in particular, South America, Africa and
Asia is relevant. Research from these areas would provide a valuable
contribution to the increasing amount of material already being generated
within the ‘West’.
At the same time, it is important to adopt methodological
strategies that enable researchers to ‘listen’ effectively
to women’s voices. Incorporating inter-disciplinary approaches to
research enables the analysis of the issues highlighted above. For instance,
Schneider adopts a philosophical approach to the issues concerning women
and sports . She suggests that research should:
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Appendix 3: Girls / women’s participation in PE, physical activity
and sport
Canadian Association for the Advancement of Women and Sport and Physical
Activity
N202 - 801 King Edward Avenue Ottawa, ON, Canada K1N 6N5 TEL: 613-562-5667 FAX: 613-562-5668 E-mail: caaws@caaws.ca www.caaws.ca/english/index.htm European Women and Sport
Amanda Bennett Equity Co-ordinator UK Sport 40 Bernard Street WC1N 1BR London TEL: +44 (0) 20 7211 5100 Email: amanda.bennett@uksport.gov.uk www.ews-online.com Girls @ Play
Karri Dawson CAAWS/Nike Girls@Play Program Manager TEL: 613-562-5667 FAX: 613-562-5668 E-mail: kdawson@caaws.ca www.caaws.ca/girlsatplay/index.htm International Association of Physical Education for Girls and Women
President Dr. Margaret Talbot United Kingdom FAX: 44.113.283.7430 Email: m.talbot@lmu.ac.uk http://www.udel.edu/HESC/bkelly/organization.html International Working Group on Women and Sport (IWG)
IWG Secretariat P.O. Box 1111-HHD, Tokyo-Chiyoda Central Station, Tokyo 100-8612 Japan TEL: +81-3-5446-8983 FAX: +81-3-5446-8942 E-mail: iwg@jws.or.jp www.iwg-gti.org International Working Group on Women and Sport
15 Eddy Street, 8th Floor Hull (Québec) CANADA K1A 0M5 FAX: (819) 956-8019 E-mail: info@canada2002.org www.canada2002.org/e/progress/worldwide/chapter3_africa.htm Japanese Association for Women in Sport
P.O. Box 1111 HHD Tokyo Chiyoda Central Station Tokyo 100-8612 Japan TEL: +81-3-5446-8983 FAX: +81-3-5446-8942 E-mail: webmaster@jws.or.jp www.jws.or.jp National Association for Girls and Women in Sport (NAGWS)
American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation & Dance 1900 Association Dr. Reston, VA 20191-1598 TEL: 703-476-3400 TEL: 1-800-213-7193-453 www.aahperd.org/nagws/template.cfm?template=main.html On The Move
Sydney Millar On the Move National Coordinator Canadian Association for the Advancement of Women and Sport and Physical Activity c/o 228-1367 West Broadway, Vancouver BC V6H 4A9 TEL: 604-738-2468 Fax: 604-737-6043 E-mail: otm@jwsporta.ca www.caaws.ca/onthemove/index.htm Womensport
Tel: +61 3 9654 7545 Ground Floor 120 Jolimont Rd Jolimont VIC 3002 FAX: +61 3 9654 7545 E-mail: info@womensport.com. www.womensport.com.au Women Sport International
WomenSport International PO Box 743 Vashon, WA USA www.womensportinternational.org Women's Sports Foundation (UK)
3rd Floor, Victoria House Bloomsbury Square London WC1B 4SE TEL: 020 7273 1740 FAX: 020 7273 1981 E-mail: info@wsf.org.uk www.wsf.org.uk Women's Sports Foundation (USA)
Eisenhower Park East Meadow, NY 11554 TEL: 1-800-227-3988 (U.S. only) TEL: 1-516-542-4700 (Business) FAX: 1-516-542-4716 E-mail: wosport@aol.com www.womenssportsfoundation.org |