FeatureFebruary 2003
| Feature | No.37 February 2003 |
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Research Methodology for Sport Science
Prof. Dr. h.c. H. Haag, M.S.,
Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel, Germany |
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Introduction
For ICSSPE, as an umbrella organisation, and for the various
disciplines of sport science, the issue of research methodology (RM) is a topic
of central concern. RM is an issue in every theory and theme field of sport
science. Of course there are specific aspects as related to the individual theory
and theme fields. However, there is a common foundation which is valid for science
in general but also for sport science specifically.
The issue of RM is also closely linked to the questions
of function, body of knowledge and theory-practice relationships as basic issues
in order to understand the nature of sport science as an academic field. To
lay a common base of understanding the terms method, methods and methodology
- as related to science - are described in the "Dictionary of Sport Science"
(Beyer, 1987) in the following way:
Method
"In science in general: procedures or activities for
gaining an understanding through observation, experiment, test, interview, analysis,
statistics, discussion, or reflection. When knowledge and understanding is purposely
aimed at through the application of Method, one can also use the term research
methods. In a specific way, the repertoire of method. can be differentiated
into analytic (inductive), deductive, descriptive, dialectic, experimental,
genetic, hermeneutic, progressive (deductive), regressive (inductive), speculative,
synthetic (deductive) method. Distinctions according to scientific disciplines
are, for example, natural scientific, and historical method. or method. in the
humanities. If only one method. is considered valid in gaining knowledge, there
is a monistic point of view; if more than one method is possible or desirable
within a scientific field there is a pluralistic view. The application of specific
research methods presupposes the use of certain tools and research techniques
such as sample survey, case study, formulation of hypotheses, setting of the
protocol, content analysis, selection of test batteries, research design, statistical
evaluation, or symbolic language" (pp. 404-405).
Methods
"The study and theory of methods and their applications.
Methods are systematic and deliberate procedures or ways of gaining knowledge
(Method; Methodology), of transmitting knowledge, abilities, and skills (education).
In this respect, the use and application of method. depend upon the nature of
the respective knowledge and transmission of knowledge" (p. 406).
Methodology
"Theory of the methods and procedures of scientific
inquiry and understanding. From a general scientific and theoretical point of
view, methodology. is a branch of logic or logistic. The task of methodology.
is to identify, classify, explain and substantiate the forms of thought, means
of analysis, methods of inquiry, concepts, principles, categories, and classification
systems which have stood the test of time and have general application in the
scientific domain. To this extent, methodology. provides both the analysis and
critique of the sciences and the scientific method. Note: In particular, methodology
is also considered the theory of research techniques. As a scientific, theoretical
analysis of the scientific effort, methodology is concerned with the development
of simple concepts, the explication of complex notions, the nature of the variables
to be analysed, the possibility of operationalising concepts, the construction
of explanatory schemata, the logical analysis of existing theories, the strategies
of constructing and testing theories, the formulation of hypotheses, the planning
of research, and the systematisation and formalisation of existing knowledge.
Every science can form a special methodology, based on the concept of general
methodology, as a special case for those methods of inquiry and techniques of
research which it employs. This is also the case for sport science" (pp.
408-409).
Nature and Function of Sport Science
An ad-hoc working group of ICSSPE with the name "Research
Methodology in Sport Science" developed a position statement - accepted
by ICSSPE - which also relates to research methodology. The major aspects are
(ICSSPE, 1994): 1. Question: What is the Function of Sport Science?
I. Nature of Sport Science
II. Functions of Sport Science
The function of sport science is to create, develop, refine,
and confirm a body of knowledge that focuses upon the following items:
III. Future Orientations and Directions
Ideally, sport science will be advanced as well as contribute
more significantly when:
2. Question: What is the Body of Knowledge of Sport Science?
It is possible to identify three distinct components of
the body of knowledge of sport science: the core or central areas of a specialisation,
a group of closely-related disciplines, and a variety of interdisciplinary thematic
concerns. Each of these three components is outlined in what follows: I. The Sport Science Specialisations:
II. Examples of the Academic Disciplines to which Sport Science
and its Specialisations Can Establish and Have Established Close Relationships:
It is important to realise that there are many other academic
disciplines and specialisations within sport science, indicating its broadening
impact and growth.
III. There is a Third Way of Describing The Body of Knowledge
of Sport Science; Namely, by Using a Thematic Approach:
There is a wide variety of themes related to sport science.
The specific character of the thematic approach is that research results are
merged by integrating various specialisations of sport science, in relation
to certain themes.
There are two types of such themes: those that have a close
relationship to the core of sport sciences, and those which have a more general
character.
Some primary examples are:
3. Question: What is the Research Methodology of Sport Science?
The research methodology of sport science - which includes
conceptualisation, research design, data collection, data analysis, and interpretation
- is determined by the questions raised, issues to be resolved, and intended
implications for, or applications to, participants in sport, as well as other
people and circumstances surrounding sport settings. The logic of the research
process should be continuously evaluated. Sport does not necessarily require
unique research methodology. However, intelligent approaches to, and in, sport
science need to be made and will be directed by the substance of the content
of interest and the problems being addressed.
It is important that researchers representing different
specialisations with unique research problems to be investigated be very familiar
with the most appropriate, effective, and innovative methodology. Well known
and traditional methodologies already incorporated in particular specialisations
(e.g. socio-cultural) may be innovatively used in other specialisations in sport
science (e.g. bio-medical). There is a wide assortment of available approaches
with which it is necessary to be familiar. When making decisions in selection,
good judgement must be used.
Furthermore, the transfer of sport science knowledge to
sport, game, and exercise settings is extremely important. From the relevant
issues determined studies conducted, and conclusions reached, the process of
transmitting this knowledge to the professional community, and the public at
large, should be effective and ongoing. As well, the evaluation of the effectiveness
of this process and subsequent outcomes of this process should be continuously
monitored.
It must be continuously emphasised that ethical practice
should be followed throughout the entire research process, as well as during
all application phases utilising the result.
4. Question: What is the Theory-Practice Relationship in Sport
Science?
Obviously, research can be primarily conceptually-driven
(fundamental approaches), with the intent of contributing to the body of knowledge
for understanding questions and issues related to sport, play, games, and exercises
(SPGE). Or, the immediate concern might be action-centred, to deal with practical
problems and to provide scientific guidance as to how to resolve them. Most
research associated with sport science probably involves concerns for both theory
and application. Usually problems and issues arising, and being identified within
specific SPGE experiences, lead to scientific research, which attempts to contribute
to the body of knowledge and, consequently, the implications are that most research
in the area would ultimately be application-centred.
There is the possibility of practice-guided theory and
theory-guided practice. However, this two-fold relationship has to be seen in
a continuum since the degree of this theory-practice relationship varies from
one research project to another.
If one considers that research projects can be either
self-generated or solicited from others, it is apparent that the reciprocal
relationship between theory and practice or practice and theory is often more
obvious with solicited research than with research which is self-generated.
That is, solicited research is more often concerned with the attainment of practical
or applied results than with the generation of new theory.
For the sound development of the theory-practice relationship
in sport science, it is also necessary that institutions of higher learning,
as well as private sector research units, emphasise, to a greater extent than
is currently the case, that the application of research results to practice
is an important part of the complete research process and one, therefore, that
should not be overlooked.
It should perhaps also be mentioned, once again, that
all pertinent ethical concerns and issues should be carefully considered in
research of all types.
Last, but not least can we find in the introduction of
the new and revised edition of the ICSSPE Directory of Sport Science (formally
known as the Vade Mecum) an indication and relationship to the construct of
research methodology which is part of the presentation of each theory field
and theme field in the following six parts:
Examples for Text Books in Research Methodology as Related
to Sport Science
This survey relates only to publications in the English language. It can
be assumed that literature published in English has the largest representation
all over the world. The following criteria were used for the presentation of
the text books dealing with issues of RM:
Hubbard, A.W. (1973). Research Methods in
Health. Physical Education, and Recreation (3rd Ed.). Washington D.C.: AAHPER.
"The need for a fresh, up-to-date view of research
methods in health, physical education, and recreation areas is the principal
reason for this third edition of Research Methods. New ideas and approaches
in research techniques are constantly being introduced, and it is important
for the research worker (whether he is a beginning graduate student or an experienced
researcher) to be aware of the latest techniques. This book is intended to continue
the tradition of the two previous editions in presenting the newest approaches
as reported by leading experts" (Preface). Contents
PART I INTRODUCTION
1 Why This Research?
2 Overview of Research: Basic Principles
PART II PREPARATIONS
3 Selecting and Defining a Research Problem
4 Searching the Literature
PART III INSTRUMENTATION ; DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
5 Introduction to Instrumentation
6 Instrumentation : Software
7 Instrumentation : Hardware
8 Collecting Data
9 Understanding Statistics
PART IV BASIC RESEARCH METHODS
10 Experiment Research
11 Descriptive Research
12 The Historical Method
13 The Philosophic Method of Research
14 Writing Proposals, Theses, Dissertations, Research Articles
15 Oral Research Report
PART V APPENDICES
A. Selected Lists of Abstracts, Bibliographies, Digits and Indices
B. Selected Bibliography: Laboratory Instrumentation
The American Association for Health, Physical Education,
and Researching (AAHPER) published the first Edition of this book in 1949. The
second edition followed 1959. Thus it becomes clear that the professional organisation
of AAHPER has, since the end of World War II, taken a deep interest in issues
of RM.
Clarke, D.H. & Clarke, H.H. (1970). Research Processes
in Physical Education, Recreation, and Health. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
"Although intended for the beginner investigator, Research Processes in Physical Education, Recreation, and Health should provide some suggestions for experienced researchers. The various research methods are presented in sufficient detail so that they can be applied by the scientist. Selected complete studies are described throughout in order to illustrate the various research processes considered. The content is sufficient to provide a graduate course in research methods; in addition, an adequate coverage of elementary statistics as related to essential research applications is included" (p. iii). Contents
PART I INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH
Chapter 1 Importance and Meaning of Research
Chapter 2 The Problem
Chapter 3 Literature Search PART II NONLABORATORY STUDIES
Chapter 4 Historical Method
Chapter 5 Philosophical Studies
Chapter 6 Surveys and Case Studies PART III STATISTICAL APPLICATIONS
Chapter 7 Distribution, Central Tendency, Percentiles
Chapter 8 Measures of Variability
Chapter 9 The Normal Curve
Chapter 10 Reliability and Tests of Significance
Chapter 11 Product-moment Correlation PART IV LABORATORY RESEACH
Chapter 12 Laboratory and Experimental Search
Chapter 13 Physiology of Exercise
Chapter 14 Motor Learning
Chapter 15 Psychological Studies
Chapter 16 Kinesiological Research
Chapter 17 Growth and Development PART V THE RESEARCH REPORT
Chapter 18 Preparation of the Research Report The late H.H. Clarke (Eugene, Oregon, USA) as well as
his son D.H. Clarke (College Park, Maryland, USA) can be regarded as prominent
researchers in sport science in the 20th century. Therefore the inclusion of
this textbook on RM is proving the standard of know-how in realising research
in sport science as expressed in this textbook.
Cicciarella, Ch.F. (1997). Research in Physical Education,
Exercise Science, and Sport. Scottsdale: Gorsuch Scarisbrick.
"The concepts, resources, tools, and ethics of research
are widely accepted as fundamentally important for graduate level preparation
of professionals in exercise science, physical education, coaching, sport management,
and related fields of endeavour. Additionally, there is increasing recognition
of a need for exposure to the skills required for intelligent consumption for
research in undergraduate training. At the same time there is a trend toward
a broader view of what constitutes scholarship, one that is inclusive of a wide
range of kinds and methods of inquiry. There is a need, therefore, for a textbook
in research methods applied to sports-related fields of study that provides
skills relevant to both the production and consumption of research, that is
cognisant of the many dimensions of sport-related professions, and that recognises
a very broad interpretation of what constitutes research. Research in Physical
Education, Exercise Science, and Sport: An Introduction is written to meet these
needs" (p. XV).
Contents
1 The Practice of Research
2 Completing the Academic Research Requirement
3 The Research Report
4 Libraries and Related Resources
5 Measuring
6 Matters of Design
7 Descriptive Research Methods
8 Experimental Research Concepts
9 Historical Research Methods
10 Exploratory and Qualitative Research Methods
11 Data Presentation
12 Elementary Statistics
13 Relationships among Variables
14 Making Group Comparisons
15 Ethical Issues in Research
On Page VII -XI there is a very detailed content table
available with a huge number of subdivisions. This is the reason why this
textbook can almost be used as a dictionary explaining the major terms as
related to "Research Methodology for Sport Science".
Baumgartner, T.A. & Strong, C.H. (1998). Conducting
and Reading Research in Health and Human Performance (2nd Ed.). Boston: WCB/McGraw-Hill.
"This book was developed based on the methods its authors have used to teach the master´s-level introduction to research course for many years. It is assumed that students come to this course with varied backgrounds in areas related to health and human performance, such as dance, exercise science, health, kinesiology, physical education, recreation, and sports management. The two major objectives of our courses are to teach the student how to conduct their own research and how to read with understanding the research that others have done. The book is comprehensive yet practical and understandable. Many examples of the application of various research methods and techniques are presented in an attempt to increase the students' grasp of the research process" (p. xiii). PART I - THE RESEARCH PROCESS
1 The Nature and Purpose of Research
2 The Research Problem
3 Selected Elements of the Research Process
4 Selection of Research Subjects: Sampling Procedures PART II - TYPES OF RESEARCH
5 Experimental Research
6 Descriptive Research
7 Historical Research
8 Creative Activities
9 Qualitative Research PART III - DATA ANALYSIS
10 Descriptive Data Analysis
11 Inferential Data Analysis PART IV - THE RESEARCH REPORT
12 The Research Report The book has a dual function. On one side it is supposed
to help students to read and consume research in a proper way. On the other
side the book can also serve the students who start to engage in doing research
with the aim of writing a master's or doctoral thesis.
Thomas, J.R. & Nelson, J.K. (1996). Research Methods
in Physical Activity (3rd Ed.). Champaign (Ill.): Human Kinetics.
"We believe this book provides the necessary information for both the consumer and the producer of research. Although no amount of knowledge about the tools of research can replace expertise in the content area, it is unlikely that good scholars in the study of physical activity can function apart from the effective use of research tools. Researchers, teachers, technicians, counsellors, and coaches need to understand the research process. If they do not, they are forced to accept information on face value or the recommendation of others. Although neither is necessarily bad, the ability to carefully evaluate and reach a valid conclusion is the mark of a professional" (p. x).
PART I Overview of the Research Process
Chapter 1 Introduction to Research in Physical Activity
Chapter 2 Developing the Problem and Using the Literature
Chapter 3 Presenting the Problem
Chapter 4 Formulating the Method
Chapter 5 Ethical Issues in Research and Scholarship
PART II Statistical and Measurement Concepts in Research
Chapter 6 Becoming Acquainted With Statistical Concepts
Chapter 7 Relationships Among Variables
Chapter 8 Differences Among Groups
Chapter 9 Understanding Multivariate Techniques
Chapter 10 Nonparametric Techniques
Chapter 11 Measuring Research Variables
PART III Types of Research
Chapter 12 Historical Research in Physical Activity
Chapter 13 Philosophic Research in Physical Activity
Chapter 14 Research Synthesis (Meta-Analysis)
Chapter 15 Descriptive Research
Chapter 16 Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research
Chapter 17 Qualitative Research
PART IV Writing the Research Report
Chapter 18 The Research Proposal
Chapter 19 Results and Discussion
Chapter 20 Ways of Reporting Research
This textbook so far is one of the most used books in regard to research methodology for sport science. The book has had several new editions, despite the fact that it is predominantly geared towards empirical research in sport science (physical activity). Haag, H. (in cooperation with Borms, J.,
Duquet, W., Ghent, G., Holzweg, M., Kluka, D., Lament-Mills, A., Love, P.,
Tenenbaum, G., Twisk, J.) (in print). Research Methodology for Sport and Exercise
Sciences. A Multi-Method Approach for Study and Research. Sage: London.
With this book a holistic concept of research methodology is presented. Thus this textbook is applicable to study and research for all of the continuum all subdisciplins or theory fields of sport and exercise sciences. Contents
PART I Philosophy and Foundations of Science
and Research
Chapter 1 Concept of Science
Chapter 2 Concept of Research
PART II Research Methods
Chapter 3 Descriptive Methods
Chapter 4 Correlational Methods
Chapter 5 Experimental Methods
PART III Research Designs
Chapter 6 Library Research, the Web and Information Technology
Chapter 7 Planning the Research
PART IV Techniques of Data Collection
Chapter 8 Concepts and Procedures in Collecting Word-Based Data
Chapter 9 Concepts and Procedures in Collecting Number-Based
Data
PART V Techniques of Data Analysis
Chapter 10 Non-Numerical Strategies of Data Analysis (Hermeneutics)
Chapter 11 Numerical Strategies of Data Analysis (Statistics)
PART VI Transfer from Research Results (Theory)
to Practice
Chapter 12 Theory-Practice and Practice-Theory Relationships
This book on research methodology for sport and exercise
science helps to carry out the various processes of gaining scientific knowledge.
The multi-method approach offers a wide variety of insights, ideas, and proposals
with regard to realising research in the wide range of sport and exercise
sciences. Only if the available methods are known, the researcher is able
to choose the appropriate research approach for a given research question.
This secures that the issue, problem and question at hand is the starting
point in the research process.
Below is a brief description on the direction
of each section within the book.
I Philosophy and Foundations of Science and Research
An important first part of research methodology is dealing
with the concept of science and research. Both structures are discussed and
analysed in order to provide a solid theoretical framework for engaging in
research. The actual research process gains considerably if it is based and
grounded in a thorough theoretical background. Therefore the engagement and
work related to this first unit is not in vain or wasted time. On the contrary,
it guarantees an adequate realisation of the research process. Furthermore,
it seems obvious that in an age of scientific advancement the 'Social-Ethical
Perspective of Science' has to be discussed.
II Research Methods
This part introduces the overall concept related to
research methods: Descriptive, correlational, and experimental. The Term "method"
is reserved in this context for this very basic issue within the research
process. Very often one can find rather confusing terminology defining tools
such as questionnaire, test, and experiment as a "method". "Method"
is conceptualised here in a holistic perspective where theory and methodology
merge together. In summary, all three research methods - descriptive, correlational,
and experimental - are viewed on the same continuum, ranging from descriptive
over correlational to experimental.
III Research Designs
After the predominantly theory-oriented beginning of
the publication, the section Research Designs has a more practical focus.
This coincides with the intention of this book to provide theoretical frameworks
and provide pragmatic orientations for carrying out research.
IV Techniques of Data Collection
The steps introduced within the research process are
typical for almost every type of research, especially if the concept of
research methodology is based on the multi-method approach.
Textbooks on research methodology, that address the
collection of word based-data, often marginally treat the topic. In chapter
8, a systematic and intensive analysis of the issue is provided in such a
way that the approach for collecting word-based data is compared to the measuring
of number-based data, which is presented in chapter 9.
V Techniques of Data Analysis
In analogy to part IV ('Techniques of Data Collection'), part V ('Techniques
of Data Analysis') consists two chapters:
VI Transfer from Research Results (Theory) to Practice
This concluding chapter emphasises the importance of the
mutual relations between theory and practice. Research methodology is viewed
as a mediator between the two constructs that feed each other so that theories
become more comprehensive and practices become sounder.
Comparative Analysis of the Content of Textbooks
Related to Research Methodology for Sport Science
A comparative analysis of the content of the six
textbooks is presented below. The six major categories of the book edited
by Haag (in print) serves as "tertium comparationis".
Table 1 Comparative Analysis of the Content of
the Textbooks on Research Methodology
This analysis is just a very modest approach to roughly
quantify the main topics which are covered in textbooks written for research
methodology for sport science. It is obvious, that five textbooks follow
about the same concept, besides the one edited by Haag (in print). This
latter one is, besides having the typical chapters of books on research
methodology, especially characterised by the fact, that it provides separate
chapters for the category "Techniques of Data Collection", Hermeneutics
as one aspect of "Techniques of Data Analysis" and for category
VI "Theory-Practice Relationships". This is also the reason
why this concept of research methodology for sport science is a holistic
concept, valid for all aspects of sport science.
Herbert Haag
Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel
Olshausenstrasse 74
24098 Kiel
GERMANY
Ph: +49 31 4318803770
 http://www.icsspe.org/portal/texte/area/bulletin/ Research Methodology for Sport Science
Prof. Dr. h.c. H. Haag, M.S.,
Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel, Germany | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||