Feature: “Recreation Sport and Social Change in Sustainable Community Development”No.55
January 2009
 
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Community Dance Programs for Older Adults –
A Sustainable Solution
Gayle J. Workman

 

The purpose of this article is to examine the trend and implications for a global increase in the aging of the population.  Lack of physical activity, higher levels of obesity, negative images and ageist stereotypes have contributed to sedentary lifestyle choices among older adults.  While many exercise forms experience high degrees of dropout, the author suggests that dance programs are multicultural, sustainable and may in fact increase adhesion to exercise by providing interesting, creative and social opportunities for mature populations.  The city of Hollywood, Florida, is examined as a case study.  Recommendations include the collaboration of community leisure providers in identifying their constituency and allocating the resources necessary to achieve their objectives. 


One of the most important demographic trends in the world today is the unprecedented aging of the population.  In 1950, approximately 8 percent of the world’s population was 60 years and older.  This number increased to 10 percent by the year 2000 and is expected to reach 21 percent by 2050 (Spalding and Sebesta, 2008).  It has been estimated that within the next 25 years the world’s total number of people over the age of 60 will grow from 605 million in the year 2000 to 1.2 billion in 2025.  Additionally, in many developed and underdeveloped countries today there are more people age 60 and older than children below the age of 15 (Stemplewski, 2006).
Another important trend is that sedentary lifestyles among older adults are contributing to a world-wide health crisis.  Currently, nearly 70 percent of the adults in the United States are overweight and more than 30 percent are obese (Spalding and Sebesta, 2008).    Since 1990, obesity has more than doubled among American adults (Hickerson, Moore, Oakleaf, Edwards, James, Swanson and Henderson, 2008).  Among older adults in the United States, obesity is also on the rise.  It is likely that baby boomers in America will have even higher levels of obesity rates than the current generation of older adults as they approach later life (Kaplan, Huguet, Newsom, McFarland and Lindsay, 2003).  Unfortunately, the lack of regular exercise and obesity is associated with numerous physical problems such as heart disease, hypertension, diabetes and arthritis (Taylor, 2003), and psychosocial consequences such as social isolation and reduction of social participation (Zettel-Watson and Britton, 2008).  Researchers have found that engaging in physical activity is a protective factor against poor health, and that a key element for aging successfully includes an active and productive engagement with society (Zettel-Watson and Britton, 2008).
In many countries, the elderly are revered and held in positions of high esteem; however, the United States has historically been a youth-oriented society, especially in the area of leisure and sport.  Until fairly recently, active participation in sport was not perceived or promoted as an adult activity. In fact, throughout much of this country’s history, many forms of leisure were viewed as childish and considered inappropriate and a waste of time for adults (Ostrow, 1984). Consequently, although practitioners continue to promote the idea of lifetime health and physical fitness, much research on physical activity continues to focus on children and adolescents. The stereotypical depiction of the elderly as frail and debilitated still exists, even though it is appropriate for less than 5 percent of the older adult population (Gandd, Campbell, Knierim, Cosky, Leslie, Ziegler and Snodgrass, 1989). A pervasive influence on the health of older people is the negative image of aging and the poor status of older people in the community.  This feeling results in poor participation of older people in sport and recreation and in the exclusion of older people (Conner, 2000).  A result of the popular mythology associated with aging has been that older adults are not expected to stay physically active. Unfortunately, this misconception can lead to early physical declivity. As Duda (1991) explained, “the declines associated with “old age” are typically seen as inevitable and attributed to the natural aging process and/or presence of disease or illness. Old age has often been synonymous with ill health, disability, senility, poverty and being a burden on society (Conner, 2000).  In many cases, however, the observed decrements in physical health among older people are a function of poor health habits and, in particular, inadequate levels of physical activity” (Duda, 1991, p. 44). 
Increasingly, investigations have shown an association between leisure activity patterns and life satisfaction of older adults (Kelly, Steinkap and Kelly, 1987; Smith, Keilhofner and Watts, 1986; Steinkamp and Kelly, 1986). While the construct of age serves as an important parameter in society, “often the perceived social meaning or norms attached to a particular chronological age or stage in life has more bearing on the individual than the age itself” (McPherson, et al, 1989, p. 236). With regard to the aging process, behavioural expectations often lead to stereotypes, which solidify and magnify differences among age groups. These expectations serve as a form of social control by defining socially appropriate behavior. However, many of these “norms” can be viewed as prescriptive. Scientific evidence now indicates that persons of every age strata can engage in sport and physical activity (Harootyan, 1982; McPherson, 1983). Yet Snyder (1980) has shown there is rapid disengagement from the sport experience among middle aged and older individuals. Part of this disengagement can be attributed to age discrimination. As people grow older in the United States, they sometimes lose prestige, recognition and status, and often accept the concept that they should “act their age” (Snyder and Sprietzer, 1983). Currently, the United States has more older adults than any other previous generation, and views regarding the capabilities of mature populations are beginning to change (Spalding and Sebesta, 2008).  This rapid increase in the number of older adults throughout the world has led to major implications for agencies and providers of recreation and leisure services. 
The benefits of physical activity among older adults are well-documented and numerous.  Scientific evidence overwhelmingly indicates that physical activity can extend independence, reduce disability and improve the quality of life.  In 2001, a coalition of 46 national organisations produced a major document designed to support the development of a national strategy for the promotion of physically active lifestyles among the mid-life and older adult population.  “The Blueprint document states that there is a substantial body of scientific evidence that indicates that regular physical activity can bring dramatic health benefits to people of all ages and abilities and that this benefit extends over the entire life course” (Chodzko-Zajko, Sheppard, Senior, Park, Mockenhaupt and Bazzarre, 2005).  Physical activity offers one of the greatest opportunities to extend years of active independent life, reduce disability and improve the quality of life for mid-life and older persons. Unfortunately, despite the overwhelming evidence to support the benefit of physical activity, there has been little success in convincing age 50-plus Americans to adhere to a physically active lifestyle (Chodzko-Zajko, et. al, 2005). The National Institute of Aging has laid the groundwork to support an initiative to increase physical activity among mid-life and older adults, and is aligned with the objectives of the United States Department of Health and Human Services Healthy People 2010.  Although physical activity is a primary factor that contributes to healthy aging, the majority of older adults do not meet the current recommendations of moderate exercise activity for 30 minutes a day (Dacey, Baltzell and Zaichkowsky, 2008).
Remaining active throughout the lifespan has been linked to such positive factors as longevity, physiological health and psychological well-being (Berger, 1989; Brown, Cundiff and Thompson, 1989; Spalding and Sebesta, 2008).  McPherson (1990) advocated for an increased focus on older age cohorts because after retirement, leisure becomes an increasingly meaningful aspect of life, and achieving meaning through physical activity contributes to what is termed “successful” aging. In addition, according to some researchers, successful older adult recreational or athletic events are marked by opportunities for socialisation (Cousins and Burgess, 1992).  The awareness that physical activity appears to reduce physiological deterioration while advancing a positive sense of personal meaning has increased the need for continued research into this construct and for local communities’ leisure service providers to promote physical activities for their older citizens. 
Indeed in 2006, the International Scientific Conference of Aging and Physical Activity: Application to Fitness, Sport and Health resolutions stated that:
  1. The aging of society mandates a continuing commitment to scientific research related to aging and older persons. There is a particular need for increased research on topics related to the role of physical activity in the promotion of health and well-being in old age.
  2. There is a need for more research relating to the specific type, intensity and volume of physical activity necessary to ensure health, functional independence and quality of life in old age.
  3. Government officials and local authorities should be educated about the central role that physical activity plays in maintaining health and independence for older adults.
  4. Local communities have a responsibility to assist older persons to be physically active. In addition to providing access to physical activity programs, it is also important to ensure that older people have many opportunities to build physical activity into their everyday lives.
  5. Universities and colleges should place a greater emphasis on educating students about the importance of physical activity for older persons. Particular attention should be paid to preparing future generations of researchers and health professionals to help meet the needs of older persons.
  6. Physical educators, health professionals and others with expertise in healthy aging will need to work together to develop a cohesive national strategy to promote active aging (Stemplewski, 2006).
The idea that communities “have a responsibility to assist older persons to be physically active” (Stemplewski, 2006) has taken hold in many small communities in the United States. The grassroots efforts of these communities are promoting physical activities for senior citizens and affecting change in the perception of aging.  In addition to providing access to physical activity programs, it is also important to ensure that older people have many opportunities to build physical activity into their everyday lives. Recreational dancing provides an activity that crosses age, gender, ethnic, language and cultural barriers while providing physically and socially beneficial forms of exercise.  The Report of the Healthy Older People Project and the United Nations’ Principles for Older Persons suggests that there is a responsibility “to add life to the years that have been added to life” (Conner, 2000).  Promoting recreational dancing among older adults meets that responsibility by increasing a focus on health and fitness, improving a healthy lifestyle and reducing health risks associated with growing older (Conner, 2000).  It also may lead to the reduction of physical, mental and social inactivity and isolation among older adults, increase self-esteem and improve the image of aging.
It has been theorised that dance is a valuable method to increase exercise compliance, augment mental and physical well-being and counteract social isolation.  Dance provides a gentle form of exercise for people in all age groups and provides a leisure option for older people that does not require special uniforms, expensive equipment, years of training, great levels of stamina or even partners.  Rhythmic activities have been enjoyed for centuries in cultures around the world.  In many countries, dance is an integral part of community life from childhood through the senior years (Conner, 2000).   Folk and line dance as a community activity encourages increased physical activity and fitness and promotes older adults in a positive light through participation in a healthy, stimulating, challenging and enjoyable past-time (Conner, 2000).  Engagement in this activity is possible among culturally diverse groups, disabled, single, partnered, same sex and non-English speaking participants.  According to Conner, recreational dance “provides an activity that is socially engaging, physically challenging, creative and culturally and mentally stimulating.  Involvement in the activity has general exercise benefits, which contribute to a healthy lifestyle.  The participants can be empowered by their increased participation in community life, due to the classes, but also because of the public performance aspect that is offered with this activity” (2000, p. 69).  The concept of “wellness” comes from psychological and social factors as much as physical or medical ones.  Dance provides opportunities for exercise, group interaction, creative expression and improved functionality.  Interpersonal development and activity leads to empowerment, improved self-esteem and quality of life.  Dancing can reduce stress, promote relaxation and provide a sensory stimulus (Conner, 2000).  As an age-old practice for people around the world, most people have had some exposure and engagement with dance at some point in their lives.  Teachers are often volunteers and peers who come from within the group, increasing interest, loyalty and commitment of participants and extending opportunities for sustainability.  The activity of dancing has appeal for many seniors, is easily developed and promoted and increases fitness.  Also, as dancing frequently is done with same-sex partners, this activity accommodates the greater number of female to male ratio prevalent among the senior population.  Compared with more individual, isolated, or repetitive exercise forms or routines, dance programs for older adults offer interesting, social and imaginative alternatives, and warrant greater consideration among leisure program providers around the globe. 
The City of Hollywood is a mature community, where rapid population growth in the 1950s and 1960s has given way to a population that is stable in size but undergoing significant changes in its composition. The U.S. Census estimated that the 2005 population for the city of Hollywood, Florida was146 734.  This coastal city is located in Broward Country, between Fort Lauderdale to the north and Miami to the south.  The Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport is one of the largest air traffic centers in the state, while Port Everglades, the second busiest cruise port in the world, is partially within its municipal boundaries. Interstate 95, the Florida Turnpike, Tri-County Commuter Rail, and two major railroads cut through the city in a north-south direction. Miami International Airport and the Port of Miami are less than twenty-five miles away, providing further opportunities for Hollywood residents, tourists and companies to have access to the global marketplace. The region is served by a substantial post-secondary educational infrastructure, including Florida Atlantic University, Florida International University, the University of Miami, a number of smaller private universities and colleges and a community college system.  The total number of visitors to Hollywood, Florida rose to a record 83.6 million in 2005.
(http://www.hollywoodfl.org/html/demographics.htm)
From its formal incorporation by adoption of a municipal charter on November 28, 1925, the City of Hollywood has transformed itself, becoming the second-most populated city in Broward County and the ninth largest city in the State of Florida. Founded by the planning visionary Joseph Wesley Young, a Washington state native and former resident of California and Indiana, the original one square mile of farmland has grown to a city of over 28.87 square miles.
It has been noted that Hollywood's demographics best represent what the United States will look like in the year 2022. In the 2000 Census, twenty-seven percent of Hollywood's residents were 55 or older; thirteen percent were 45 to 54; and thirty-one percent were 25 to 44. Hispanics made up seventeen percent; African Americans thirteen percent; Whites sixty-eight percent; and Asian Americans two percent of the population.  Money Magazine forecasts that this will be the composition of the United States in the year 2022, with the exception that the Hispanic population will be fourteen percent and Asian Americans five percent. Hollywood is proud of its cultural and racial diversity (www.hollywoodfl.org/records). 

General Demographics of Hollywood City
 

CENSUS 2000 SUMMARY
DEMOGRAPHICS
NUMBER
PERCENT
 
 
 
TOTAL POPULATION
139,357
100
 
 
 
SEX AND AGE
 
 
Male
67,577
48.5
Female
71,780
51.5
 
 
 
Under 5 years
8,225
5.9
5 to 9 years
8,480
6.1
10 to 14 years
8,256
5.9
15 to 19 years
7,533
5.4
20 to 24 years
6,916
5
25 to 34 years
20,013
14.4
35 to 44 years
23,613
16.9
45 to 54 years
19,086
13.7
55 to 59 years
7,098
5.1
60 to 64 years
5,978
4.3
65 to 74 years
11,103
8
75 to 84 years
8,662
6.2
85 years and over
4,394
3.2
Median age (years)
39.2
(X)
 
 
 
RACE
 
 
White
109,190
78.4
Black or African American
16,853
12.1
American Indian and Alaska Native
381
0.3
Vietnamese
152
0.1
Other Asian
276
0.2
Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander
117
0.1
Native Hawaiian
28
0
Guamanian or Chamorro
12
0
Samoan
11
0
Other Pacific Islander
66
0
Asian
2,757
2
Asian Indian
1,168
0.8
Chinese
655
0.5
Filipino
259
0.2
Japanese
83
0.1
Korean
164
0.1
 
 
 
HISPANIC OR LATINO AND RACE
 
 
Hispanic or Latino (or any race)
31,392
22.5
Mexican
1,288
0.9
Puerto Rican
7,463
5.4
Cuban
5,891
4.2
Other Hispanic or Latino
16,750
12
Not Hispanic or Latino
107,965
77.5
White alone
85,808
61.6
 
 
 
RELATIONSHIP
 
 
In households
137,606
98.7
Householder
59,673
42.8
Spouse
24,789
17.8
Child
35,237
25.3
Own child under 18 years
26,128
18.7
Other relatives
8,874
6.4
Under 18 years
2,799
2
Nonrelatives
9,033
6.5
Unmarried partner
4,034
2.9
In group quarters
1,751
1.3
Institutionalized population
858
0.6
Noninstitutionalized population
893
0.6
 
 
 
HOUSEHOLDS BY TYPE
 
 
Total households
59,673
100
Family households (families)
34,462
57.8
With own children under 18 years
14,847
24.9
Married-couple family
24,789
41.5
With own children under 18 years
9,769
16.4
Female householder, no husband present
7,076
11.9
With own children under 18 years
3,894
6.5
Nonfamily households
25,211
42.2
Householder living alone
20,508
34.4
Householder 65 years and over
7,821
13.1
Households with individuals under 18 years
16,571
27.8
Households with individuals 65 years and over
17,584
29.5
 
 
 
Average household size
2.31
(X)
Average family size
3
(X)
 
 
 
HOUSING OCCUPANCY
 
 
Total housing units
68,426
100
Occupied housing units
59,673
87.2
Vacant housing units
8,753
12.8
For seasonal, recreational, or occasional use
4,899
7.2
 
 
 
Homeowner vacancy rate (percent)
2.2
(X)
Rental vacancy rate (percent)
7.1
(X)
 
 
 
HOUSING TENURE
 
 
Occupied housing units
59,673
100
Owner-occupied housing units
37,098
62.2
Renter-occupied housing units
22,575
37.8
 
 
 
Average household size of owner-occupied unit
2.43
(X)
Average household size of renter-occupied unit
2.1
(X)

(http://www.hollywoodfl.org/html/demographics.htm)

According to Census data constructed for the year 2000, over 26 percent of the resident population in the city of Hollywood, Florida, is made up of people who are age 55 and older. Not included in this information are the large number of tourists, students and part-time residents who live here during the winter months.  Many of this transient population are retired adults who expect entertainment, educational and recreational programming.  The Parks and Recreation program in Hollywood offers a wide array of activities specifically directed toward adults and older adults.  Specifically, dance classes are offered for a minimal fee, while others are provided for no charge.  The City supports participation in recreational dancing through free evening concerts located at the open air Hollywood Beach Theater during the weeknights and on most weekends.  German, Latin, Italian, African and Carribean festivals and dances are just a few of the ethnic celebrations held by the City of Hollywood at the broadwalk on the beach.  Folk and line dances that do not require partners have become very popular, and all musical genres are provided.  The large majority of both dancers and spectators at these cost-free events are older adults.  

Summary
Clearly, a rapidly aging world population has great implications for community leisure providers and services.  Recreational dance for older adults is a sustainable activity that transcends age, gender, ethnicity, ability and language.  Dance encourages physical activity that promotes increased levels of fitness, skill development, group participation and socialisation.  For leisure service providers to implement a dance program for older adults, the following strategies should be addressed:
  • Community recreation programmers should closely identify their own constituency, including the part-time residents comprised of vacationers, retirees and “snowbirds”. 
  • Locating and working collaboratively with other people, organisations and agencies committed to offering healthy physical activities for older adults is a critical component in furthering opportunities for mature populations. 
  • Focusing on the development of programs that are cross-cultural, sustainable, economically affordable and physically accessible is an important consideration to encourage maximal participation among this demographic. 
  • Communities and organisations must be willing to allocate the people and financial resources necessary to support the programs that will achieve their strategies. 
  • Formative and summative evaluation of all outcomes based on measurable objectives should always take place.

References
Berger, B.  (1989).  The role of physical activity in the life quality of older adults.   Physical Activity and Aging: American Academy of Physical Education Papers, 22, Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., 42-58.
Brown, S., Cundiff , D. and Thompson, W.  (1989).  Implications for fitness programming – the geriatric population.  Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 60 (1), 18-23.
Chodzko-Zajko, W.J, Sheppard, L., Senior, J., Park, C.H., Mockenhaupt, R. and Bazzarre (2005).  The National Blueprint for promoting physical activity in the mid-life and older adult population.  Quest, 57 (1), 2-11.
Conner, M.  (2000).  Recreational folk dance: A multicultural exercise component in healthy aging.  Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 47, 69-76.
Cousins, S. and Burgess, A.  (1992).  Perspectives on older adults in physical activity and sports.  Educational Gerontology, 18 (5), 461-481.
Dacey, M., Baltzell, A. and Zaichkowsky, L.  (2008).  Older adults’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation toward physical activity.  American Journal of Health Behaviors, 32 (6), 570-582.
Duda, J. (1991).  Predictors of personal investment in physical activity among middle-aged and older adults.  Perceptual and Motor Skills, 66, 543-549.   
Gandd, R., Campbell, T., Knierim, H., Cosky, A., Leslie, D., Ziegler, R. and Snodgrass, J. (1989).  Senior Olympic games: Opportunities for older adults.  Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 60 (3), 72-76.
Harootyan, R. (1982). Participation of older people in sports.  In R. Pankin (Ed.), Social approaches to sport (pp. 122-147).  Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.
Hickerson, B., Moore, A., Oakleaf, L., Edwards, M., James, P., Swanson, J. and Henderson, K.  (2008).  The role of a senior center in promoting physical activity for older adults.  Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 26 (1), 22-39.
Kaplan, M., Huguet, N., Newsom, J., McFarland, B. andLindsay, J.  (2003).  Prevalence and correlates of overweight and obesity among older adults: Findings from the Canadian National Population Health Survey.  Journal of Gerontology, 11, 1018-1030. 
Kelly, J., Steinkap, M. and Kelly, J.  (1987).  Later life satisfaction: Does leisure contribute?  Leisure Sciences, 19, 189-200.
McPherson, B. (1983).  Aging as a social process: An introduction to individual and population aging.  Toronto: Butterworths.
McPherson, B., Curtis, J. and Loy, J. (1989).  The social significance of sport.  Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
McPherson, B. (1990).  Aging as a social process: An introduction to individual and population aging.  2nd ed.  Toronto: Butterworths.
Ostrow, A. (1984).  Physical activity and the older adult: Psychological perspectives.  Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Book Co.
Smith, N., Keilhofner, G. and Watts, J.  (1986).  The relationship between volition, activity pattern, and life satisfaction of the elderly.  American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 40, 278-283.
Snyder, E. (1980).  Reflection of commitment and patterns of disengagement from recreational physical activity.  In S. Greendorfer & A. Yiannakis (Eds.), Sociology of sport: diverse perspectives, 1st Annual NASS Conference Proceedings (pp. 108-117).  New York: Leisure Press.
Snyder , E. and Sprietzer, E.  (1983).  Social aspects of sport (3rd ed.).  Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 
Steinkamp, M. and Kelly, J. (1986).  Relationships among motivational orientation, level of leisure activity, and life satisfaction in older men and women.  The Journal of Psychology, 119, 509-520. 
Spalding, M.C. and Sebesta, S.C. (2008) Geriatric screening and prevenative care. American Family Physician, 78: 206-215.
Stemplewski, R.  (2006).  Aging and physical activity: application to fitness, sport, and health.  Studies in Physical Culture and Tourism, 13, 123-124.
Taylor, S.  (2003).  Health psychology (5th ed.).  New York: McGraw-Hill.
Zettel-Watson, L. and Britton, M.  (2008).  The impact of obesity on the social participation of older adults.  The Journal of General Psychology, 35 (4), 409-423.

Web Citations:


Contact
Gayle J. Workman, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Coordinator of Leisure and Recreation Management
Department of Sport and Exercise Science
School of Human Performance and Leisure Sciences
Barry University
Miami Shores, Florida, USA
Email: gworkman@mail.barry.edu




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