|
|||||||||||||
I. Introduction
The process of globalisation is not limited to a steadily
increasing flow of goods and services and higher volumes of financial
transactions. Globalisation also has an enormous impact on social development
in general and in particular, on individual well-being. Globalisation
challenges people to reorientate themselves in a constantly changing world.
Compelling norms and traditional values are becoming increasingly vague
and have even disappeared, being no longer available to steer and guide
the individual. Rapid social change is leading to a general lack of orientation
among a broad segment of people, that is, anomie. This phenomenon may
not only be present in societies whose structures are undergoing rapid,
uncontrolled change
but also in societies with rigid, immobile social structures.
At the micro-level, anomie leads to difficulties in individual adaptation,
resulting in a loss of general social orientation, reinforced feelings
of insecurity and marginalisation, the cultivation of false expectations
or feelings of relative deprivation. As a result, an increase in apathy,
depression, suicide, involvement in criminal activity, sect formation,
alcoholism, and drug addiction can be observed. Therefore, anomic structures
become strong barriers to the development and evolution of any society.
Viewed in a broader context, there are different types of anomie, including:
What role Sport can play to mitigate negative syndromes of anomie and
to prevent violent conflicts?
II. Sport and Anomie
Sport can offer a simple societal framework to solve
conflicts without having to resort to violence. Sport serves to foster
identity and can counteract the problem of social disintegration. In order
to explain the relationship between Sport and the negative syndromes of
anomie, let us have a closer look to the impacts Sport can have on the
personal and the societal level.
Sport and personal development
The positive effects of sport on human development and physical well-being
have been known for some time: sport can enhance psychological skills:
Individuals learn how to deal with emotions and become acquainted with
limitations (e.g. rules, opponents, environment). Sport can make a valuable
contribution to developing self-confidence, organisational skills, and
respect for the body (Sonstroem, 1984). Various studies also confirm
the positive effects of sport and physical education in combating state
anxiety, tension, stress and depression for people of all ages and both
sexes (ISSP 1992).
Sport and aggression
Studies on the connection between sport and aggression are particularly
interesting. In this context, aggression is defined as behavior which
aims to injure or harm the opponent. There is a distinction between
hostile and instrumental aggression: the former primarily aims at injuring
the opponent, whereas the latter type serves in achieving a sporting
goal (e.g. winning points). Different studies have demonstrated that
sports activity may very well lead to a channeling of aggression and
that there is a negative correlation between the amount of training
and the tendency to use violence (Javis, 2002, p. 56). It is often suspected
that martial art types of sport in particular increase the tendency
to use violence. That this is not necessarily the case is verified by
a study on the behavior of karate athletes: a negative correlation between
the amount of training and the tendency to use violence was demonstrated
by Daniels and Thornton (1990).
Sport and social capital
Apart from the various skills such as concentration, performance, stamina
or mental strength, which can be achieved through sport, there is also
an added value derived from people “playing together“. This
capital can be seen as social wealth or social capital. Sport teaches
the necessity and sense of teamwork. Communal sporting activities create
trust and the feeling of belonging, and provide a specific social structure.
Team sports, in particular, are valuable in the production of social
capital. However, individual sports also create social capital through
training groups and the social environment. In recent years, the role
of sport in the battle against social exclusion has been recognised:
Sport can make an important contribution to the integration of fringe
groups.
Conclusion
In a rapidly changing world where compelling norms and traditional values
no longer guide the individual, new common frameworks are needed to
combat the negative syndromes of anomie. Sport can provide such a simple
societal framework of reference and can make an important contribution
to self-development and self-realisation. Sport serves to foster identity,
especially in children and young people, and can counteract the problem
of social disintegration. Sport can minimise the negative consequences
of anomie, such as depression, sect formation, alcoholism, drug addiction
or resorting to acts of violence either towards oneself or against others.
Different studies demonstrate that physical activity negatively correlates
with social introversion, depression and daily coping (Plante et al.,
2000). The anomie approach may explain why active participation even
in martial art types of sport leads to a reduced rather than increased
tendency to use violence. Conclusively, not only the results of physical
activity i.e. physical fitness, have an impact on the individual well-being,
but the process of being involved in a common societal framework which
is able to establish new norms and values of social integration and
orientation.
III. Sport and violent conflicts
Conflicts are a normal phenomenon in every society.
The aim is not to prevent conflicts (these are necessary for every development),
but to solve conflicts without having to resort to violence. This is sport’s
most interesting side. Compared with all other types of dialogue, sport
shows a distinct advantage. With its playful attitude, rational arguments
can be “played out”. Even when conflicting parties are not
prepared to sit down together, it is possible to link the conflicting
parties through sport. Experience in the former Yugoslavia and other war-torn
regions has shown that sport’s potential has been underestimated
as a confidence-builder following ethnic conflicts.
Sport speaks a simple language. It can unite different peoples, irrespective
of religion, race or social background. It is also a medium for enabling
and fostering international relations. Sports competitions allow individuals,
groups and nations to measure themselves against one another –
peacefully, constructively and with mutual benefit. Sport as a medium
for intercultural dialogue is particularly attractive to children and
young people. Experiences with children and young people in the Balkans
in recent years have shown sport’s potential. Anders Levinsen’s
"Fun Football School" is an example that illustrates this.
Children, both girls and boys, are invited to a one-week training camp
(Fun Football School) where the multi-ethnic combination of trainers
and children is given particular emphasis. After any questions regarding
organisation have been clarified, the children become involved in playing
a ball game together and learn to have fun with each other (Levinsen,
2003). The Fun Football Schools differ from other conflict management
methods in that discussion of the problem is not the starting point.
Levinsen writes: "This is not a conflict management tool that has
the parties sit around a table discussing why they cannot live together
peacefully. We create a program where people act and play together in
a constructive atmosphere, in real time, so to speak.“
International sports competitions in particular represent a platform
for dialogue. Dialogue between cultures through sport can be achieved
more quickly and with less financial investment than through traditional
cultural exchange programs. The World Cup in Japan and Korea in 2002
illustrated the potential of major sporting events with regard to dialogue
between cultures. The Japanese newspaper Tokio Shimbun reported an example
of this: “The supporters of the Japanese and Korean teams definitely
moved closer to one another during this championship. Let the young
people of both countries write a new history based on this joint hospitality,
and let us leave our unfortunate past in the past.“ (Tokio Shimbun,
19 June 2002, p. 6). Also, anthropologist Paul Richards (1997), underlines
the role of football as an alternative to war with the example of Sierra
Leone. He found that for most young people in West Africa, a raising
of social status is based on traditional values. In this system of rule,
further education or promotion in state or private institutions does
not improve social status. Instead, individuals have to prove themselves
as soldiers and join guerrilla organisations. There is, however, an
alternative way of improving status at a more "playful" level
- football is revealed as a perfect alternative to war.
Also of particularly interesting are the modern Olympic Games, which
have been taking place since 1896. The Olympic Games are increasingly
becoming a major international media event. Critical voices speaking
of the potential misuse of sport look back at the Olympic Games in Germany
in 1936 and forward to the Olympic Games in China in 2008. Various studies
have shown that, on the one hand, there is indeed a latent risk that
the Olympic Games can be instrumentalised for political propaganda,
just like other major events. On the other hand, it is clear that the
Olympic Games Committee has repeatedly exerted great pressure on political
leaders to abolish violent confrontations and racism and to seek compromise
(Ueberhorst, 1995). The link between sport and nationalism and separatist
ambitions is frequently emphasised by critics and has also been researched
scientifically (Teichler 1999; Hargreaves 2002). The Olympic Games in
Barcelona were particularly noteworthy because of the political situation
and the separatist ambitions of Catalonia. As Hargreaves reported, the
interaction between Catalonian and Spanish identities and interests
was very important for the Games. It was a great help to the Games that
Spanish and Catalonian identities were integrated in a global economic
and cultural network. The Spanish state was in no way weakened by the
Games and the excellent organisation strengthened national unity and
Spanish prestige. Moreover, Catalonia was able to profit from the games
at an economic, cultural and political level. According to Hargreaves,
joint responsibility for this mutual success can be attributed to a
well-developed civil society, cultural institutions and a healthy trust
in indigenous cultural identity.
Conclusion
The potential of sport as a medium for securing peace or preventing
violent conflicts cannot be completely clarified. While “ensuring
peace” and “preventing conflict” are important factors
politically, they are very complex and nearly impossible to define as
objects of scientific study.
We have clear evidence that aggression can be reduced or channeled
by sport. In different cultures we could observe the development of
sport as an alternative to violent conflicts and even war. In situations
of war, sport can heal emotional scars, and overcome traumas.
But the process of the “sportisation” of society implies
also latent risks of misuse. In organising big sport events, there is
a constant danger of instrumentalisation of sport to reach political
aims (politisation). The Olympic Games in Germany 1936 and also the
Olympic boycott in the 80’s can lead as a negative example.
IV. Final Remarks
Fully aware of the risks of sport, we believe that:
In February 2003, the Swiss Academy for Development coordinated an
international conference on Sport and Development. More than 380 persons
representing 55 countries were present at Magglingen, including 320
delegates and 60 media correspondents. Together, they discussed the
potential of sport for development and peace. A common declaration –
the Magglingen Declaration (link to Magglingen Declaration in Bulletin
39) – was signed, including practical recommendations.
With the support of the Swiss Government and the Union of European
Football Association (UEFA), an internet platform on Sport and Development
(S&D) has been established, where one can find an extensive collection
of S&D projects, information on conferences, events and documents
as well as a market place to submit project proposals considered for
funding.
We invite you to use with us this chance to discover this new field of sport, development and peace. We are looking forward to meeting you on our platform www.sportanddev.org. References
Atteslander, P.; Schwery, R. Global Anomie: The
Need to Steer Social Change. Swiss Academy for Development. 2002.
Brohm, Jean-Marie. Sociologie politique du sport.
P.U.N. Nancy. 1992.
Bryant, Peter. Social exclusion and sport: the
role of training and learning. 2001.
Committee for the Development of Sport (CCDS). The
Significance of Sport in Society. Health, Socialisation, Economy.
Council of Europe Press, 1995.
Collins, Michael F; Kay Tess. Sport and Social
Exclusion. Routledge. London and New York. 2003.
Daniels K.; Thornton E. An analysis of the relationship
between hostility and training in the martial arts. Journal of
Sports Sciences 8, 95-101, 1990.
Fabre, Jean; Hillmer Anne. Common Ground: The
Place of Sport in Development. Prepared for the 1998 International
Olympic Forum for Development, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 9-10 September
1998.
Franklin, Adrian. On Fox-hunting and Angling: Norbert
Elias and the "Sportisation" Process. Journal of Historical
Sociology 9 (4) 1996: 432-56
Furnham, Adrian. Personality and Demographic
Determinants of Leisure and Sport Preference and Performance. International
Journal of Sport Psychology, 21, 218-236, 1990.
Gasser, Patrick K. Open Fun Football Schools
in Bosnia & Herzegovina: Breaking post-war ice. The Diploma in Sociology,
Politics and Management of Sports. University of Lausanne. 2nd
edition, 2002.
Giulianotti, Richard. Sport and Social Development
in Africa: Some Major Human Rights Issues. 2000.
Hargreaves, John. Freedom for Catalonia.
Cambridge University Press. 2000.
Hargreaves, John. Globalisation Theory, Global
Sport, and Nations and Nationalism. J. Sugden and A. Tomlinson,
eds. Power Games. Routledge, 2002.
Hillmer, Anne; Fabre, Jean. Social and Community
Development Through Sport. A presentation to the International Olympic
Forum for Development. 1997.
ICSSPE (International Council for Sport Sciences
and Physical Education). Women, Sport and Physical Activity: Sharing
Good Practice. Berlin, 2002.
ISSP (Internat. Society of Sport Psychology). Physical
activity and psychological benefits: A position statement. International
Journal of Sport Psychology, 23(1), 86-91, 1992.
Jarvis, Matt. Sport Psychology. Routledge.
2002.
Lehmann, Anton; Schaub Reisle Maja. Droit au
sport (right to sport). Pilot Project Presented at the International
Conference on Sport and Development. Federal Office of Sports, Magglingen,
Switzerland, 16-18 February 2003.
Magglingen Declaration and Reommendations. Magglingen,
Switzerland, February 2003. http://www.sportanddev.org.
Ortmann, Rüdiger. Anomie as a Consequence
of Disturbances of Equilibrium in Case of Suddenly Occurring Social
or Personal Changes. A paper presented at the Annual Meeting of
the American society of Criminology. San Fransisco, Califorinia. Novembre
17, 2000.
Phillips, David P. Natural Experiments on the Effects of Mass-Media
Violence on Fatal Aggression: Strength and Weaknesses of a New Approach.
In L. Berkowitz (ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. Orlando,
Academic Press. 1986.
Plante, Thomas G.; LeCaptain, Sara E.; McLean Heather
C. Perceived Fitness Predicts Daily Coping Better Than Physical
Activity. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 5, 66-79,
2000.
Richards, Paul. Soccer and Violence in War-Torn
Africa: soccer and social rehabilitation in Sierra Leone. G. Armstrong
and R. Giulianotti (eds). Entering in the Field: new perspectives in
world football. Oxford: Berg, 1997.
Sondstroem, R.J. Exercise and Self-Esteem.
R.L. Terjung (ed.) Exercise and Sport 1984
Sciences Reviews. 123-155. Lexington. Collamore Press.
Svoboda, Bohumil. Scientific Review: Socialisation.
The Significance of Sport in Society. Health, Socialisation, Economy.
Council of Europe Press, 1995.
UNESCO 1999. MINEPS III. Final Report. Third
International Conference of Ministers and Senior Officials Responsible
for Physical Education and Sport. Punta del Este - Uruguay. 30 November
- 3 December 1999.
United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for
Development and Peace. Sport for Development and Peace: Towards
Achieving the Millennium Development Goals. United nations 2003.
Youcef, Fates. Sport et Tiers-Monde. Presses
Universitaires de France. Paris. 1994.
Dr. Rolf Schwery and Dr. Niklaus Eggenberger-Argote
Swiss Academy for Development Lindenhof – Boezingenstrasse 71 2502 Biel/Bienne Switzerland Phone +41 32 344 30 55 Fax +41 32 3 410 810 http://www.sportanddev.org Email: schwery@sad.ch Email: eggenberger@sad.ch ![]() http://www.icsspe.org/portal/bulletin-january2004.htm |