Current Issues
No.40
January 2004
 
    

Sport as a Cure to Mitigate Negative Syndromes of Anomie and to Prevent violent Conflicts
Paper presented at the ICHREP-SD 2nd Middle East Region Congress ”Sport, Development and Peace”, Tehran, 1-3 December 2003
Dr. Rolf Schwery and Dr. Niklaus Eggenberger-Argote, Switzerland
 


I. Introduction
The process of globalisation is not limited to a steadily increasing flow of goods and services and higher volumes of financial transactions. Globalisation also has an enormous impact on social development in general and in particular, on individual well-being. Globalisation challenges people to reorientate themselves in a constantly changing world. Compelling norms and traditional values are becoming increasingly vague and have even disappeared, being no longer available to steer and guide the individual. Rapid social change is leading to a general lack of orientation among a broad segment of people, that is, anomie. This phenomenon may not only be present in societies whose structures are undergoing rapid, uncontrolled change but also in societies with rigid, immobile social structures.
At the micro-level, anomie leads to difficulties in individual adaptation, resulting in a loss of general social orientation, reinforced feelings of insecurity and marginalisation, the cultivation of false expectations or feelings of relative deprivation. As a result, an increase in apathy, depression, suicide, involvement in criminal activity, sect formation, alcoholism, and drug addiction can be observed. Therefore, anomic structures become strong barriers to the development and evolution of any society.
Viewed in a broader context, there are different types of anomie, including:
  • ‘Transformation anomie’. This is dominant in countries undergoing a transformation process from communist to liberal, autocratic to democratic, centrally planned to market-oriented states and vice versa. The former socialist countries of Eastern Europe are witnessing a high degree of this type of anomie during transition periods. Abrupt impoverishment, the fear of losing one’s job, an increased crime rate and an inefficient legal system are the main sources of anomie. Different survival practices of the household, which use non-market mechanisms and support networks, can prevent individuals from falling into the anomie trap. Increased inter-family aid, bartering of food for other substances, development of black markets and the use of neighbors’ solidarity can protect against anomie.
  • ‘Depression anomie’. This is most likely to be found in times of deep economic depression, which are accompanied by a drastic increase in the unemployment rate. The consequences are especially negative on the individual level, where results include a high suicide rate and involvement in criminal activity, violent gangs, corruption, prostitution and illegal trade.
  • ‘Loss-of-leadership anomie’. This type of anomie is associated with the loss of a strong political leader and can just as easily lead to a state in which norms and values dissolve for a broad class of people. It can be observed especially in traditional societies that are strongly dependent on a charismatic “father of the nation”.
  • ‘Conflict anomie’. Involves overt military conflicts, in which a broad class of people is engaged in criminal activity, leading to serious alienation from traditional values and norms.
What role Sport can play to mitigate negative syndromes of anomie and to prevent violent conflicts?

II. Sport and Anomie
Sport can offer a simple societal framework to solve conflicts without having to resort to violence. Sport serves to foster identity and can counteract the problem of social disintegration. In order to explain the relationship between Sport and the negative syndromes of anomie, let us have a closer look to the impacts Sport can have on the personal and the societal level.

Sport and personal development
The positive effects of sport on human development and physical well-being have been known for some time: sport can enhance psychological skills: Individuals learn how to deal with emotions and become acquainted with limitations (e.g. rules, opponents, environment). Sport can make a valuable contribution to developing self-confidence, organisational skills, and respect for the body (Sonstroem, 1984). Various studies also confirm the positive effects of sport and physical education in combating state anxiety, tension, stress and depression for people of all ages and both sexes (ISSP 1992).

Sport and aggression
Studies on the connection between sport and aggression are particularly interesting. In this context, aggression is defined as behavior which aims to injure or harm the opponent. There is a distinction between hostile and instrumental aggression: the former primarily aims at injuring the opponent, whereas the latter type serves in achieving a sporting goal (e.g. winning points). Different studies have demonstrated that sports activity may very well lead to a channeling of aggression and that there is a negative correlation between the amount of training and the tendency to use violence (Javis, 2002, p. 56). It is often suspected that martial art types of sport in particular increase the tendency to use violence. That this is not necessarily the case is verified by a study on the behavior of karate athletes: a negative correlation between the amount of training and the tendency to use violence was demonstrated by Daniels and Thornton (1990).

Sport and social capital
Apart from the various skills such as concentration, performance, stamina or mental strength, which can be achieved through sport, there is also an added value derived from people “playing together“. This capital can be seen as social wealth or social capital. Sport teaches the necessity and sense of teamwork. Communal sporting activities create trust and the feeling of belonging, and provide a specific social structure. Team sports, in particular, are valuable in the production of social capital. However, individual sports also create social capital through training groups and the social environment. In recent years, the role of sport in the battle against social exclusion has been recognised: Sport can make an important contribution to the integration of fringe groups.

Conclusion
In a rapidly changing world where compelling norms and traditional values no longer guide the individual, new common frameworks are needed to combat the negative syndromes of anomie. Sport can provide such a simple societal framework of reference and can make an important contribution to self-development and self-realisation. Sport serves to foster identity, especially in children and young people, and can counteract the problem of social disintegration. Sport can minimise the negative consequences of anomie, such as depression, sect formation, alcoholism, drug addiction or resorting to acts of violence either towards oneself or against others. Different studies demonstrate that physical activity negatively correlates with social introversion, depression and daily coping (Plante et al., 2000). The anomie approach may explain why active participation even in martial art types of sport leads to a reduced rather than increased tendency to use violence. Conclusively, not only the results of physical activity i.e. physical fitness, have an impact on the individual well-being, but the process of being involved in a common societal framework which is able to establish new norms and values of social integration and orientation.

III. Sport and violent conflicts
Conflicts are a normal phenomenon in every society. The aim is not to prevent conflicts (these are necessary for every development), but to solve conflicts without having to resort to violence. This is sport’s most interesting side. Compared with all other types of dialogue, sport shows a distinct advantage. With its playful attitude, rational arguments can be “played out”. Even when conflicting parties are not prepared to sit down together, it is possible to link the conflicting parties through sport. Experience in the former Yugoslavia and other war-torn regions has shown that sport’s potential has been underestimated as a confidence-builder following ethnic conflicts.
Sport speaks a simple language. It can unite different peoples, irrespective of religion, race or social background. It is also a medium for enabling and fostering international relations. Sports competitions allow individuals, groups and nations to measure themselves against one another – peacefully, constructively and with mutual benefit. Sport as a medium for intercultural dialogue is particularly attractive to children and young people. Experiences with children and young people in the Balkans in recent years have shown sport’s potential. Anders Levinsen’s "Fun Football School" is an example that illustrates this. Children, both girls and boys, are invited to a one-week training camp (Fun Football School) where the multi-ethnic combination of trainers and children is given particular emphasis. After any questions regarding organisation have been clarified, the children become involved in playing a ball game together and learn to have fun with each other (Levinsen, 2003). The Fun Football Schools differ from other conflict management methods in that discussion of the problem is not the starting point. Levinsen writes: "This is not a conflict management tool that has the parties sit around a table discussing why they cannot live together peacefully. We create a program where people act and play together in a constructive atmosphere, in real time, so to speak.“
International sports competitions in particular represent a platform for dialogue. Dialogue between cultures through sport can be achieved more quickly and with less financial investment than through traditional cultural exchange programs. The World Cup in Japan and Korea in 2002 illustrated the potential of major sporting events with regard to dialogue between cultures. The Japanese newspaper Tokio Shimbun reported an example of this: “The supporters of the Japanese and Korean teams definitely moved closer to one another during this championship. Let the young people of both countries write a new history based on this joint hospitality, and let us leave our unfortunate past in the past.“ (Tokio Shimbun, 19 June 2002, p. 6). Also, anthropologist Paul Richards (1997), underlines the role of football as an alternative to war with the example of Sierra Leone. He found that for most young people in West Africa, a raising of social status is based on traditional values. In this system of rule, further education or promotion in state or private institutions does not improve social status. Instead, individuals have to prove themselves as soldiers and join guerrilla organisations. There is, however, an alternative way of improving status at a more "playful" level - football is revealed as a perfect alternative to war.
Also of particularly interesting are the modern Olympic Games, which have been taking place since 1896. The Olympic Games are increasingly becoming a major international media event. Critical voices speaking of the potential misuse of sport look back at the Olympic Games in Germany in 1936 and forward to the Olympic Games in China in 2008. Various studies have shown that, on the one hand, there is indeed a latent risk that the Olympic Games can be instrumentalised for political propaganda, just like other major events. On the other hand, it is clear that the Olympic Games Committee has repeatedly exerted great pressure on political leaders to abolish violent confrontations and racism and to seek compromise (Ueberhorst, 1995). The link between sport and nationalism and separatist ambitions is frequently emphasised by critics and has also been researched scientifically (Teichler 1999; Hargreaves 2002). The Olympic Games in Barcelona were particularly noteworthy because of the political situation and the separatist ambitions of Catalonia. As Hargreaves reported, the interaction between Catalonian and Spanish identities and interests was very important for the Games. It was a great help to the Games that Spanish and Catalonian identities were integrated in a global economic and cultural network. The Spanish state was in no way weakened by the Games and the excellent organisation strengthened national unity and Spanish prestige. Moreover, Catalonia was able to profit from the games at an economic, cultural and political level. According to Hargreaves, joint responsibility for this mutual success can be attributed to a well-developed civil society, cultural institutions and a healthy trust in indigenous cultural identity.

Conclusion
The potential of sport as a medium for securing peace or preventing violent conflicts cannot be completely clarified. While “ensuring peace” and “preventing conflict” are important factors politically, they are very complex and nearly impossible to define as objects of scientific study.
We have clear evidence that aggression can be reduced or channeled by sport. In different cultures we could observe the development of sport as an alternative to violent conflicts and even war. In situations of war, sport can heal emotional scars, and overcome traumas.
But the process of the “sportisation” of society implies also latent risks of misuse. In organising big sport events, there is a constant danger of instrumentalisation of sport to reach political aims (politisation). The Olympic Games in Germany 1936 and also the Olympic boycott in the 80’s can lead as a negative example.

IV. Final Remarks
Fully aware of the risks of sport, we believe that:
  1. Sport offers a simple societal frame of reference. In this sense, it serves to foster identity and to counteract the problems of social disintegration.
  2. Sport through its playful attitude especially attracts the attention of children and young people and teaches them to deal with emotions, to respect others and to accept common rules.
  3. Sport can channel aggression and therefore prevent acts of violence against the self and against others.
  4. Sport speaks a simple language and can be a motor of cultural exchange, mutual understanding, trust-building and tolerance.
  5. Sport therefore can serve as an instrument to mitigate negative syndromes of anomie and to solve conflicts without having to resort to violence.
In February 2003, the Swiss Academy for Development coordinated an international conference on Sport and Development. More than 380 persons representing 55 countries were present at Magglingen, including 320 delegates and 60 media correspondents. Together, they discussed the potential of sport for development and peace. A common declaration – the Magglingen Declaration (link to Magglingen Declaration in Bulletin 39) – was signed, including practical recommendations.
With the support of the Swiss Government and the Union of European Football Association (UEFA), an internet platform on Sport and Development (S&D) has been established, where one can find an extensive collection of S&D projects, information on conferences, events and documents as well as a market place to submit project proposals considered for funding.
We invite you to use with us this chance to discover this new field of sport, development and peace. We are looking forward to meeting you on our platform www.sportanddev.org.

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Dr. Rolf Schwery and Dr. Niklaus Eggenberger-Argote
Swiss Academy for Development
Lindenhof – Boezingenstrasse 71
2502 Biel/Bienne
Switzerland
Phone +41 32 344 30 55
Fax +41 32 3 410 810
http://www.sportanddev.org
Email: schwery@sad.ch
Email: eggenberger@sad.ch




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